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Anatomy and Physiology of the Breast

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Management of Breast Diseases

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Abstract

The mammary gland is classified as a branched tubuloalveolar structure with hormone-responsive lobules surrounded by a loose connective tissue stroma. The glands making up the breast are embedded in adipose tissue separated by bands of connective tissue. The breast is unique in that it completes the majority of its development after birth undergoing hormonally regulated changes during puberty. It varies moderately during each menstrual cycle, develops additionally during pregnancy, and differentiates following parturition during the process of lactation. The breast regresses after lactation to a much less differentiated state through the process of involution, which occurs following each cycle of pregnancy, parturition, and lactation. Following reduction of estrogen and progesterone at menopause, the breast involutes, reverting to a near prepubertal structure. These complex developmental processes are controlled by a combination of hormonal stimulation, growth factors, and other physical elements constituting the microenvironment of the mammary gland.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    EGFRs belong to the ErbB family of receptors, a group of receptors that are interdependent from the binding of their ligands to the activation of downstream pathways. Some ErbB-targeted therapies are aimed at inhibiting multiple ErbB receptors and interfering with the cooperation that exists between receptors. Members of the ErbB family accept cues from multiple ligands, including EGF, TGF-α, amphiregulin, and several neuregulins [157].

  2. 2.

    Much more extensive list of factors and the effects of their mutations in mouse mammary gland development can be found in the Mikkola and Millar review comparing mammary gland development with that of other skin appendages [321]. Their applicability to the human has not been documented, and the failure of gene deletion experiments addressing most of these factors to result in mammary gland abnormalities may indicate a high degree of functional redundancy [322].

  3. 3.

    Many descriptions of “embryonic” development in the literature on human breast development are better referred to as prenatal, since the embryonic period extends only from the end of the second to the end of the eighth postfertilization week. The more inclusive term, prenatal, is used here.

Abbreviations

BCL-2:

B-cell CLL/lymphoma 2

BRCA1:

Breast cancer 1

BM:

Basement membrane

BrdU:

Bromodeoxyuridine

CD:

Cluster of differentiation

CSF:

Colony-stimulating factor

CTGF:

Connective tissue growth factor

DES:

Diethylstilbestrol

ECM:

Extracellular matrix

EGF:

Epidermal growth factor

EGFR:

Epidermal growth factor receptor

ER:

Estrogen receptor

FGF:

Fibroblast growth factor

FSH:

Follicle-stimulating hormone

GH:

Growth hormone

GnRH:

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

hCG:

Human chorionic gonadotropin

HGF:

Hepatocyte growth factor

HIF:

Hypoxia-inducible factor

HPG:

Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal

hPL:

Human placental lactogen

ICC:

Interstitial cell of Cajal

IgA:

Immunoglobulin A

IGF:

Insulin-like growth factor

IGFBP:

IGF-binding protein

IgM:

Immunoglobulin M

IR:

Insulin receptor

Jak:

Janus kinase

Ki67:

A nuclear antigen in cycling cells

LH:

Luteinizing hormone

MMPs:

Matrix metalloproteinases

OXT:

Oxytocin

PR:

Progesterone receptor

PRL:

Prolactin

PRLR:

Prolactin receptor

PTH:

Parathyroid hormone

PTHrP:

Parathyroid hormone-related peptide

Sca:

Stem cell antigen

SP:

Side population

Stat:

Signal transducer and activator of transcription

TDLU:

Terminal ductal lobular unit

TEB:

Terminal end bud

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Acknowledgments

We remain extremely grateful to colleagues for their critical reading of the original chapter, and we again thank Richard Conran, M.D. Ph.D., J.D., and Stephen Rothwell, Ph.D., for providing specimens for the micrographs included herein.

Disclaimer

The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private ones of the authors and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the views of the Department of Defense or the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA

    Martha C. Johnson

  2. Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA

    Mary L. Cutler

Authors
  1. Martha C. Johnson
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  2. Mary L. Cutler
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Correspondence to Mary L. Cutler .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Surgery, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, USA

    Ismail Jatoi

  2. Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Luebeck, Germany

    Achim Rody

Appendix

Appendix

1.1.1 A Brief Comparison of Murine and Human Breast

Differences between human and murine breasts include the following: (1) The mouse has a well-defined “fat pad” stroma into which its ductwork grows. Human stroma is much more fibrous. (2) The functional unit of the human is the terminal ductal lobular unit (TDLU), which has the appearance of a bunch of grapes arising from a stem (duct) and is embedded in loose connective tissue. The comparable mouse structure is the lobuloalveolar unit. It also contains alveoli and ductwork. However, during murine development, the terminal end bud (TEB), a solid bulbous structure, is most often referred to in the literature. (3) Male mouse mammary glands regress prenatally under the influence of androgens, but infant human breasts are indistinguishable by gender. (4) Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) is found in epithelia and stroma in the mouse, but while expressed in human breast epithelial cells, it has not been documented in human breast stroma. (5) The mouse has five pairs of mammary glands, each pair regulated by slightly different factors, while the human has just one pair (Table 1.2).

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© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

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Johnson, M.C., Cutler, M.L. (2016). Anatomy and Physiology of the Breast. In: Jatoi, I., Rody, A. (eds) Management of Breast Diseases. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46356-8_1

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46356-8_1

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