Abstract
The human exposure to groundwater contamination with toxic elements is a worldwide concern. In this study, multivariate statistics coupled with probabilistic and deterministic risk estimation approaches were applied to 173 groundwater samples of Urmia aquifer (UA) to evaluate human health risks in relation to the consumption of groundwater contaminated with toxic elements. The concentrations of aluminum (Al), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn) were below their corresponding maximum permissible levels as advised by the WHO, USEPA, and Iranian guidelines. However, arsenic (As), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), and selenium (Se) were elevated at some locations. Monte Carlo simulation-based probabilistic risk estimation suggested ingestion as the dominant pathway for water-hosted element exposure. Mean values of hazard index estimated for As exposure from combined ingestion and dermal contact pathways exceeded the safe level of 1.0 for both adults and children, indicated potential non-carcinogenic health risks. The total cancer risk induced by groundwater As exceeded the acceptable limit of 1 × 10–4. Sensitivity analysis highlighted exposure duration, element concentration in water, and average time as the most significant variables causing the probable health risks. Speciation modeling using PHREEQC highlighted the occurrence of As(V) and As(III) in groundwater of the UA. Reductive dissolution of Fe(III) (oxyhydr)oxides and clay minerals was identified as the main controlling mechanism of As mobilization. This communication emphasizes the need for appropriate approaches in mitigating toxic element contamination of water resources in coastal parts of the UA to safeguard public health from carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmad A, Rutten S, Eikelboom M, de Waal L, Bruning H, Bhattacharya P, van der Wal A (2019) Impact of phosphate, silicate and natural organic matter on the size of Fe(III) precipitates and arsenate co-precipitation efficiency in calcium containing water. Sep Purif Technol 235:116117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2019.116117
Ahmad A, van der Wal B, Bhattacharya P, van Genuchten CM (2019) Characteristics of Fe and Mn bearing precipitates generated by Fe(II) and Mn(II) co-oxidation with O2, MnO4 and HOCl in the presence of groundwater ions. Water Res 161:505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.036
Ahmad A, van der Wens P, Baken K, de Waal L, Bhattacharya P, Stuyfzand P (2020) Arsenic reduction to <1 µg/L in Dutch drinking water. Environ Int 134:105253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105253
Alves RI, Sampaio CF, Nadal M, Schuhmacher M, Domingo JL, Segura-Munoz SI (2014) Metal concentrations in surface water and sediments from Pardo River, Brazil: human health risks. Environ Res 133:149–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.05.012
Amiri V, Berndtsson R (2020) Fluoride occurrence and human health risk from groundwater use at the west coast of Urmia Lake, Iran. Arab J Geosci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05905-7
Amiri V, Kamrani S, Ahmad A, Bhattacharya P, Mansoori J (2020) Groundwater quality evaluation using Shannon information theory and human health risk assessment in Yazd province, central plateau of Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10362-6
Amiri V, Nakhaei M, Lak R (2017) Using radon-222 and radium-226 isotopes to deduce the functioning of a coastal aquifer adjacent to a hypersaline lake in NW Iran. J Asian Earth Sci 147:128–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.07.015
Amiri V, Nakhaei M, Lak R, Kholghi M (2016a) Assessment of seasonal groundwater quality and potential saltwater intrusion: a study case in Urmia coastal aquifer (NW Iran) using the groundwater quality index (GQI) and hydrochemical facies evolution diagram (HFE-D). Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 30:1473–1484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-015-1108-3
Amiri V, Nakhaei M, Lak R, Kholghi M (2016b) Geophysical, isotopic, and hydrogeochemical tools to identify potential impacts on coastal groundwater resources from Urmia hypersaline Lake, NW Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:16738–16760. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6859-y
Amiri V, Nakhaei M, Lak R, Kholghi M (2016c) Investigating the salinization and freshening processes of groundwater through major ion and trace element indicators: Urmia plain, NW of Iran. Environ Monit Assess 188:233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5231-5
Apodaca LE, Mueller DK, Koterba MT (2006) Review of trace element blank and replicate data collected in ground and surface water for the national water-quality assessment program, 1991–2002. U.S Geological Survey, Reston
Appelo CAJ, Postma D (2005) Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) (2015) Toxicological profiles, toxic substances portal. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/index. Accessed Nov 2015
Backman B, Bodis D, Lahermo P, Rapant S, Tarvainen T (1998) Application of a groundwater contamination index in Finland and Slovakia. Environ Geol 36:55–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540050320
Barringer JL, Reilly PA (2013) Arsenic in groundwater: a summary of sources and the biogeochemical and hydrogeologic factors affecting arsenic occurrence and mobility. Book chapter, current perspectives in contaminant hydrology and water resources sustainability. https://doi.org/10.5772/55354
Baytak D, Sofuoglu A, Inal F, Sofuoglu SC (2008) Seasonal variation in drinking water concentrations of disinfection by-products in IZMIR and associated human health risks. Sci Total Environ 407(1):286–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.08.019
Bhattacharya P, Hossain M, Rahman SN, Robinson C, Nath B, Rahman M, Islam MM, von Brömssen M, Ahmed KM, Chowdhury D, Rahman M, Persson LA, Vahter M (2011) Temporal and seasonal variability of arsenic in drinking water wells in Matlab, southeastern Bangladesh: a preliminary evaluation on the basis of a 4 year study. J Environ Sci Heal A 46(11):1177–1184. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2011.598768
Bhattacharya P, Mukherjee A, Mukherjee AB (2011) Arsenic in groundwater of India. In: Nriagu JO (ed) Encyclopedia of environmental health, vol 1. Elsevier, Burlington, pp 150–164
Biswas A, Majumder S, Neidhardt H, Halder D, Bhowmick S, Mukherjee-Goswami A, Kundu A, Saha D, Berner Z, Chatterjee D (2011) Groundwater chemistry and redox processes: depth dependent arsenic release mechanism. Appl Geochem 26(4):516–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2011.01.010
Bondu R, Cloutier V, Benzaazoua M, Rosa E, Bouzahzah H (2017) The role of sulfide minerals in the genesis of groundwater with elevated geogenic arsenic in bedrock aquifers from western Quebec, Canada. Chem Geol 474:33–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2017.10.021
Bondu R, Cloutier V, Rosa E, Benzaazoua M (2017) Mobility and speciation of geogenic arsenic in bedrock groundwater from the Canadian Shield in western Quebec. Canada Sci Total Environ 574:509–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.210
Caboi R, Cidu R, Fanfani L, Lattanzi P, Zuddas P (1999) Environmental mineralogy and geochemistry of the abandoned Pb-Zn Montevecchio-Ingurtosu mining district, Sardinia. Italy Chron Mineral Res Explor 534:21–28
Chowdhury S, Mazumder MAJ, Al-Attas O, Husain T (2016) Heavy metals in drinking water: occurrences, implications, and future needs in developing countries. Sci Total Environ 569–570:476–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.166
Christodoulidou M, Charalambous C, Aletrari M, Kanari P, Petronda A, Ward NI (2012) Arsenic concentrations in groundwaters of Cyprus. J Hydrol 468–469:94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.08.019
De Miguel E, Iribarren I, Chacon E, Ordonez A, Charlesworth S (2007) Risk-based evaluation of the exposure of children to trace elements in playgrounds in Madrid (Spain). Chemosphere 66:505–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.05.065
Demir V, Dere T, Ergin S, Cakιr Y, Celik F (2015) Determination and health risk assessment of heavy metals in drinking water of Tunceli. Turkey Water Resour Res 42(4):508–516. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0097807815040041
Deng Y, Li H, Wang Y, Duan Y, Gan Y (2014) Temporal variability of groundwater chemistry and relationship with water-table fluctuation in the Jianghan Plain, central China. Procedia Earth Planet Sci 10:100–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2014.08.018
Espín S, Martínez-Lopez E, Jimenez P, María-Mojica P, García-Fernandez AJ (2014) Effects of heavy metals on biomarkers for oxidative stress in Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Environ Res 129:59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2013.11.008
Facchinelli A, Sacchi E, Mallen L (2001) Multivariate statistical and GIS-based approach to identify heavy metal sources in soils. Environ Pollut 114:313–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(00)00243-8
Ficklin DJWH, Plumee GS, Smith KS, McHugh JB (1992) Geo-chemical classification of mine drainages and natural drainages in mineralized areas. In: Kharaka YK, Maest AS (eds) Water-rock interaction. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 381–384
Franco-Uria A, Lopez-Mateo C, Roca E, Fernandez-Marcos ML (2009) Source identification of heavy metals in pastureland by multivariate analysis in NW Spain. J Hazard Mater 165(1–3):1008–1015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.10.118
Galitskaya IV, Rama Mohan K, Keshav Krishna A, Batrak GI, Eremina ON, Putilina VS, Yuganova TI (2017) Assessment of soil and groundwater contamination by heavy metals and metalloids in Russian and Indian megacities. Procedia Earth Planet Sci 17:674–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2016.12.180
Gautam RK, Sharma SK, Mahiyam S, Chattopadhyaya MC (2014) Contamination of heavy metals in aquatic media: transport, toxicity and technologies for remediation. In: Sharma SK (ed) Heavy metals in water: presence, removal and safety. Royal Society of Chemistry, London, pp 1–24
Giri S, Singh AK (2015) Human health risk assessment via drinking water pathway due to metal contamination in the groundwater of Subarnarekha River Basin, India. Environ Monit Assess 187:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4265-4
Guo H, Zhang Y, Jia Y, Zhao K, Li Y, Tang X (2013) Dynamic behaviors of water levels and arsenic concentration in shallow groundwater from the Hetao Basin, Inner Mongolia. J Geochem Explor 135:130–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.010
He S, Wu J (2019) Hydrogeochemical characteristics, groundwater quality and health risks from hexavalent chromium and nitrate in groundwater of Huanhe Formation in Wuqi County, northwest China. Expo Health 11(2):125–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0289-7
He X, Li P (2020) Surface water pollution in the middle Chinese Loess Plateau with special focus on hexavalent chromium (Cr6+): occurrence, sources and health risks. Expo Health 12(3):385–401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00344-x
He X, Wu J, He S (2019) Hydrochemical characteristics and quality evaluation of groundwater in terms of health risks in Luohe aquifer in Wuqi County of the Chinese Loess Plateau, northwest China. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 25(1–2):32–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1531693
He X, Li P, Ji Y, Wang Y, Su Z, Elumalai V (2020) Groundwater arsenic and fluoride and associated arsenicosis and fluorosis in China: occurrence, distribution and management. Expo Health 12(3):355–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00347-8
IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) (2016) IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Vol 1–115. https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. Accessed Apr 12 2016
Iran drinking water standards (2010) Drinking water-physical and chemical specifications. Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran
ISO 5667–11 (1993) Water quality Sampling. Guidance on sampling of groundwaters
Javadian M, Behrangi A, Gholozadeh M, Tajrishy M (2019) METRIC and WaPOR estimates of evapotranspiration over the Lake Urmia Basin: comparative analysis and composite assessment. Water 11(8):1647. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11081647
Jiang Y, Zeng X, Fan X, Chao S, Zhu M, Cao H (2015) Levels of arsenic pollution in daily foodstuffs and soils and its associated human health risk in a town in Jiangsu Province, China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 122:198–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.07.018
Kamrani S, Rezaei M, Amiri V, Saberinasr A (2016) Investigating the efficiency of information entropy and fuzzy theories to classification of groundwater samples for drinking purposes: Lenjanat Plain. Central Iran Environ Earth Sci 74:1370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-6185-1
Kapaj S, Peterson H, Liber K, Bhattacharya P (2006) Human health effects from chronic arsenic poisoning–A review. J Environ Sci Heal A 41(10):2399–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520600873571
Karunanidhi D, Aravinthasamy P, Deepali M, Subramani T, Roy PD (2020) The effects of geochemical processes on groundwater chemistry and the health risks associated with fluoride intake in a semi-arid region of South India. RSC Adv 10:4840. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9ra10332e
Kim SH, Kim K, Ko KS, Kim Y, Lee KS (2012) Co-contamination of arsenic and fluoride in the groundwater of unconsolidated aquifers under reducing environments. Chemosphere 8:851–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.01.025
Kubier A, Wilkin RT, Pichler T (2019) Cadmium in soils and groundwater: a review. Appl Geochem 108:104388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2019.104388
Kumar M, Ramanatahn AL, Tripathi R, Farswan S, Kumar D, Bhattacharya P (2017) A study of trace element contamination using multivariate statistical techniques and health risk assessment in groundwater of Chhaprola industrial area, gautam buddha nagar, Uttar Pradesh, India. Chemosphere 166:135–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.086
Kumar M, Ramanathan AL, Rahman MM, Naidu R (2016) Concentrations of inorganic arsenic in groundwater, agricultural soils and subsurface sediments from the middle Gangetic plain of Bihar, India. Sci Total Environ 573:1103–1114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.109
Lambert R, Grant C, Sauve S (2007) Cadmium and zinc in soil solution extracts following the application of phosphate fertilizers. Sci Total Environ 378(3):293–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.02.008
Levitt JP, Degnan JR, Flanagan SM, Jurgens BC (2019) Arsenic variability and groundwater age in three water supply wells in southeast New Hampshire. Geosci Front 10:1669–1683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2019.01.002
Li J, He M, Han W, Gu Y (2009) Analysis and assessment on heavy metal sources in the coastal soils developed from alluvial deposits using multivariate statistical methods. J Hazard Mater 164:976–981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2019.01.002
Li P, Qian H, Howard KWF, Wu J (2015) Heavy metal contamination of Yellow River alluvial sediments, northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 73(7):3403–3415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3628-4
Li P, Qian H, Howard KWF, Wu J, Lyu X (2014) Anthropogenic pollution and variability of manganese in alluvial sediments of the Yellow River, Ningxia, northwest China. Environ Monit Assess 186(3):1385–1398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3461-3
Li P, Wu J, Qian H, Zhou W (2016) Distribution, enrichment and sources of trace metals in the topsoil in the vicinity of a steel wire plant along the Silk Road economic belt, northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 75(10):909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5719-x
Li P, Tian R, Xue C, Wu J (2017) Progress, opportunities and key fields for groundwater quality research under the impacts of human activities in China with a special focus on western China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(15):13224–13234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8753-7
Li P, Feng W, Xue C, Tian R, Wang S (2017) Spatiotemporal variability of contaminants in lake water and their risks to human health: a case study of the Shahu Lake tourist area, northwest China. Expo Health 9(3):213–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0237-3
Li P, Tian R, Liu R (2019) Solute geochemistry and multivariate analysis of water quality in the guohua phosphorite mine, Guizhou Province. China Expo Health 11(2):81–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0277-y
Lonati G, Zanoni F (2012) Probabilistic health risk assessment of carcinogenic emissions from a MSW gasification plant. Environ Int 44:80–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2012.01.013
Mohan SV, Nithila P, Reddy SJ (1996) Estimation of heavy metals in drinking water and development of heavy metal pollution index. J Environ Sci Heal A 31(2):283–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529609376357
Muhammad S, Shah MT, Khan S (2011) Health risk assessment of heavy metals and their source apportionment in drinking water of Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Microchem J 98:334–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2011.03.003
Mukherjee A, Verma S, Gupta S, Henke KR, Bhattacharya P (2014) Influence of tectonics, sedimentation and aqueous flow cycles on the origin of global groundwater arsenic: Paradigms from three continents. J Hydrol 518:284–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.044
Nadal M, Schuhmacher M, Domingo JL (2011) Long-term environmental monitoring of persistent organic pollutants and metals in a chemical/petrochemical area: human health risks. Environ Pollut 159:1769–1777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.04.007
Nakhaei M, Amiri V, Rezaei K, Moosaei F (2015) An investigation of the potential environmental contamination from the leachate of Rasht waste disposal site. Iran B Eng Geol Environ 74:233–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0577-9
Nam DH, Lee DP (2006) Monitoring for Pb and Cd pollution using feral pigeons in rural, urban, and industrial environments of Korea. Sci Total Environ 357(1–3):288–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.08.017
Nriagu JO, Bhattacharya P, Mukherjee AB, Bundschuh J, Zevenhoven R, Loeppert RH (2007) Arsenic in soil and groundwater: an introduction. In: Bhattacharya P, Mukherjee AB, Bundschuh J, Zevenhoven R, Loeppert RH (eds) Arsenic in soil and groundwater environment: biogeochemical interactions, health effects and remediation, trace metals and other contaminants in the environment, Nriagu JO (Series Editor), vol 9. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp 3–60
Parkhurst DL, Appelo CAJ (1999) User’s guide to PHREEQC (version 2), a computer program for speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport and inverse geo-chemical calculations. US Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report, pp. 99-4259
Pekey H, Karaka D, Bakoglu M (2004) Source apportionment of trace metals in surface waters of a polluted stream using multivariate statistical analyses. Mar Pollut Bull 49:809–818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.06.029
Prasad B, Bose J (2001) Evaluation of the heavy metal pollution index for surface and spring water near a limestone mining area of the lower Himalayas. Environ Geol 41(2):183–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540100380
Qu CS, Ma ZW, Yang J, Liu Y, Bi J, Huang L (2012) Human exposure pathways of heavy metals in a lead-zinc mining area, Jiangsu Province. China PloS One 7(11):46793. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046793
Rausand M (2011) Risk assessment: theory, methods, and applications, 1 edn. Wiley, p 664
Rivera-Velasquez MF, Fallico C, Guerra I, Straface S (2013) A comparison of deterministic and probabilistic approaches for assessing risks from contaminated aquifers: an Italian case study. Waste Manag Res 31(12):1245–1254. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X13507305
Sajil Kumar PJ, Jegathambal P, James EJ (2014) Factors influencing the high fluoride concentration in groundwater of Vellore District, South India. Environ Earth Sci 72:2437–2446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-014-3152-6
Saha N, Rahman MS, Jolly YN, Rahman A, Sattar MA, Hai MA (2016) Spatial distribution and contamination assessment of six heavy metals in soils and their transfer into mature tobacco plants in Kushtia District. Bangladesh Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(4):3414–3426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5575-3
Saha N, Safiur Rahman M, Ahmed MB, Zhou JL, Ngo HH, Guo W (2017) Industrial metal pollution in water and probabilistic assessment of human health risk. J Environ Manag 185:70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.10.023
Saha N, Webb GE, Zhao JX (2016) Coral skeletal geochemistry as a tool for monitoring inshore water quality. Sci Total Environ 566–567:652–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.066
Saha N, Zaman M (2013) Evaluation of possible health risks of heavy metals by consumption of foodstuffs available in the central market of Rajshahi City, Bangladesh. Environ Monit Assess 185:3867–3878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2835-2
Salonen VP, Korkka-Niemi K (2007) Influence of parent sediments on the concentration of heavy metals in urban and suburban soils in Turku, Finland. Appl Geochem 22:906–918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2007.02.003
Sheibani S, Ataie-Ashtiani B, Safaie A, Simmons CT (2020) Influence of lakebed sediment deposit on the interaction of hypersaline lake and groundwater: a simplified case of Lake Urmia, Iran. J Hydrol 5:8–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125110
Singh AK, Tewary B, Sinha A (2011) Hydrochemistry and quality assessment of groundwater in part of NOIDA metropolitan city, Uttar Pradesh. J Geol Soc India 78:523–540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-011-0124-2
Sohrabi N, Chitsazan M, Amiri V, Moradi Nezhad T (2013) Evaluation of groundwater resources in alluvial aquifer based on MODFLOW program, case study: Evan plain (Iran). Int J Agri Crop Sci 5(11):1164–1170
Sohrabi N, Kalantari N, Amiri V, Nakhaei M (2017) Assessing the chemical behavior and spatial distribution of yttrium and rare earth elements (YREEs) in a coastal aquifer adjacent to the Urmia Hypersaline Lake. NW Iran Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(25):20502–20520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9644-7
Sohrabi N, Kalantari N, Amiri V (2018) An evaluation of the distribution and behavior of uranium in Urmia aquifer. Iran-Water Resour Res 14(3):236–252 (in Persian)
Tamasi G, Cini R (2004) Heavy metals in drinking waters from Mount Amiata (Tuscany, Italy). Possible risks from arsenic for public health in the Province of Siena. Sci Total Environ 327(1–3):41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2003.10.011
Thundiyil JG, Yuan Y, Smith AH, Steinmaus C (2007) Seasonal variation of arsenic concentration in wells in Nevada. Environ Res 104:367–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2007.02.007
USEPA (2004) Risk assessment guidance for superfund Vol I: human health evaluation manual (part E, supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment). US Environment Protection Agency, Washington
USEPA (2012) Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. U. S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington
USEPA (2015) Regulated drinking water contaminants. https://www.epa.gov/dwstandardsregulations#Disinfectants. Accessed Dec 02 2015
USEPA (1989) Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Evaluation part A. Vol. 1. EPA/540/1–89/002. s. l., Human Health. USEPA, Washington
WHO (2011) Guideline for Drinking-water Quality, 4th edn. World Health Organization, Geneva
Wu J, Sun Z (2016) Evaluation of shallow groundwater contamination and associated human health risk in an alluvial plain impacted by agricultural and industrial activities, mid-west China. Expo Health 8(3):311–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-015-0170-x
Wu J, Li P, Qian H, Duan Z, Zhang X (2014) Using correlation and multivariate statistical analysis to identify hydrogeochemical processes affecting the major ion chemistry of waters: Case study in Laoheba phosphorite mine in Sichuan. China Arab J Geosci 7(10):3973–3982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-1057-4
Wu J, Xue C, Tian R, Wang S (2017) Lake water quality assessment: a case study of Shahu Lake in the semi-arid loess area of northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 76:232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6516-x
Wu J, Zhou H, He S, Zhang Y (2019) Comprehensive understanding of groundwater quality for domestic and agricultural purposes in terms of health risks in a coal mine area of the Ordos basin, north of the Chinese Loess Plateau. Environ Earth Sci 78(15):446
Wu J, Li P, Wang D, Ren X, Wei M (2020) Statistical and multivariate statistical techniques to trace the sources and affecting factors of groundwater pollution in a rapidly growing city on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 26(6):1603–1621. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1594156
Yang C, Li S, Liu R, Sun P, Liu K (2015) Effect of reductive dissolution of iron (hydr)oxides on arsenic behaviour in a water–sediment system: first release, then adsorption. Ecol Eng 83:176–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.06.018
Yankey RK, Fianko JR, Osae S, Ahialey EK, Duncan AE, Essuman DK, Bentum JK (2013) Evaluation of heavy metal pollution index of groundwater in the Tarkwa mining area, Ghana. Elixir Pollut 54:12663–12667
Zhang Y, Wu J, Xu B (2018) Human health risk assessment of groundwater nitrogen pollution in Jinghui canal irrigation area of the loess region, northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 77(7):273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7456-9
Zkeri E, Aloupi M, Gaganis P (2018) Seasonal and spatial variation of arsenic in groundwater in a rhyolithic volcanic area of Lesvos Island. Greece Environ Monit Assess 190:44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6395-3
Acknowledgements
This work is financially supported by the Geological Survey of Iran (GSI). We would like to thank all of the members of the GSI, especially Dr. Razyeh Lak for their kind cooperation that made this research possible. We wish to thank the anonymous reviewers and associate editor of the SERRA journal for their constructive comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sohrabi, N., Kalantari, N., Amiri, V. et al. A probabilistic-deterministic analysis of human health risk related to the exposure to potentially toxic elements in groundwater of Urmia coastal aquifer (NW of Iran) with a special focus on arsenic speciation and temporal variation. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 35, 1509–1528 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-020-01934-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-020-01934-6