Abstract
In this study, we attempted to calculate the Natural Background Level (NBL) for 12 selected chemical compounds in the Urmia aquifer, northwestern Iran. In this study, combined methods including pre-selection and statistical methods for determining NBLs have been used. In the pre-selection method, the concentration of nitrate (NO3 ≥ 19.97 ppm) and chloride (Cl ≥ 200 ppm) were used as the main criteria to identify and eliminate samples affected by human activities. The selected concentration of nitrate is determined using the comparison of the results of various statistical and graphical evaluations including Quantile-Quantile plot (Q-Q plot), Box & Whisker plot (BW), Box & Whisker plot Iterative (BWI), Grubbs test, Mean and standard deviation (mean ± 2σ) (MSD), and median absolute deviation (MAD). After identifying the final data set, the NBL of the selected chemical compounds was calculated by two techniques including the Iterative 2σ technique (2σ) and calculated distribution function (CDF). Due to higher concentration relative to the reference values (REF), this study has focused on the calculation of NBL values of SO4, F, As, and Mn. The results showed that the upper limit of NBLs calculated for these variables is about 125 ppm, 1 ppm, 8.5 ppb, 80 ppb, respectively. Given that no study has been conducted to determine the NBLs of chemical compounds in groundwater in Iran, the results of this study can be a roadmap for decision-makers and researchers to better manage this aquifer and other water resources in this country with limited freshwater resources.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Almasri MN (2007) Nitrate contamination of groundwater: a conceptual management framework. Environ Impact Assess Rev 27:220–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2006.11.002
Amiri V, Berndtsson R (2020) Fluoride occurrence and human health risk from groundwater use at the west coast of Urmia lake, Iran. Arab J Geosci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05905-7
Amiri V, Nakhaei M, Lak R, Kholghi M (2016a) Assessment of seasonal groundwater quality and potential saltwater intrusion: a study case in Urmia coastal aquifer (NW Iran) using the groundwater quality index (GQI) and hydrochemical facies evolution diagram (HFE-D). Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 30:1473–1484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-015-1108-3
Amiri V, Nakhaei M, Lak R, Kholghi M (2016b) Geophysical, isotopic, and hydrogeochemical tools to identify potential impacts on coastal groundwater resources from Urmia hypersaline Lake, NW Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:16738–16760. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6859-y
Amiri V, Nakhaei M, Lak R, Kholghi M (2016c) Investigating the salinization and freshening processes of coastal groundwater resources in Urmia aquifer. NW Iran Environ Monit Assess 188:233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5231-5
Amiri V, Nakhaei M, Lak R (2017) Using radon-222 and radium-226 isotopes to deduce the functioning of a coastal aquifer adjacent to a hypersaline lake in NW Iran. J Asian Earth Sci 147:128–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.07.015
Amiri V, Bhattacharya P, Nakhaei M (2021a) The hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater resources and their suitability for agricultural and industrial uses in an arid area of Iran. Groundw Sustain Dev 12:100527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100527
Amiri V, Kamrani S, Ahmad A, Bhattacharya P, Mansoori J (2021b) Groundwater quality evaluation using Shannon information theory and human health risk assessment in Yazd province, central plateau of Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:1108–1130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10362-6
Amiri V, Li P, Bhattacharya P, Nakhaei M (2021c) Mercury pollution in the coastal Urmia aquifer in northwestern Iran: potential sources, mobility, and toxicity. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:17546–17562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11865-y
APHA (1985) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater,16th edn. American Public Health Association, Washington DC
Barnes CJ, Jacobson G, Smith GD (1992) The origin of high-nitrate ground waters in the Australian arid zone. J Hydrol 137(1–4):181–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(92)90055-Z
Bech J, Tume P, Longan L, Reverter F (2005) Baseline concentrations of trace elements in surface soils of the Torreles and Saint Climent municipal districts (Catalonia, Spain). Environ Monit Assess 108(1–3):309–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-005-4331-4
Biddau R, Cidu R, Lorrai M, Mulas MG (2017) Assessing background values of chloride, sulfate and fluoride in groundwater: a geochemical-statistical approach at a regional scale. J Geochem Explor 181:243–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2017.08.002
Bulut OF, Duru B, Çakmak O, Günhan O, Dilek FB, Yetis U (2020) Determination of groundwater threshold values: A methodological approach. J Clean Prod 253:120001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120001
Cruz JV, Andrade C (2015) Natural background groundwater composition in the Azores archipelago (Portugal): a hydrogeochemical study and threshold value determination. Sci Total Environ 520:127–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.057
De Caro M, Crosta GB, Frattini P (2017) Hydrogeochemical characterization and Natural Background Levels in urbanized areas: Milan Metropolitan area (Northern Italy). J Hydrol 547:455–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.02.025
European Community (2006) Groundwater directive 2006/118/CE. Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Protection of Groundwater Against Pollution and Deterioration, OJ L372, 27/12/2006, pp 19–31
Duan M, Du X, Peng W, Zhang S, Yan L (2019) A revised method of surface water quality evaluation based on background values and its application to samples collected in Heilongjiang province. China Water 11:1057. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11051057
Duan M, Du X, Peng W, Jiang C, Zhang S, Ding Y, Yan L (2020) Importance of surface water background values for objectively assessing water quality in a unique basin. Sci Total Environ 722:137922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137922
Ducci D, Condesso de Melo MT, Preziosi E, Sellerino M, Parrone D, Ribeiro L (2016) Combining natural background levels (NBLs) assessment with indicator kriging analysis to improve groundwater quality data interpretation and management. Sci Total Environ 569–570:569–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.184
Edmunds WM, Shand P, Hart P, Ward RS (2003) The natural (baseline) quality of groundwater: a UK pilot study. Sci Total Environ 310(1–3):25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0048-9697(02)00620-4
Falkenmark M (2005) Water usability degradation. Water Int 30(2):136–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060508691854
Gałuszka A (2006) A review of geochemical background concepts and an example using data from Poland. Environ Geol 52(5):861–870. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-006-0528-2
Gao Y, Qian H, Wang H, Chen J, Ren W, Yang F (2019) Assessment of background levels and pollution sources for arsenic and fluoride in the phreatic and confined groundwater of Xi’an city, Shaanxi, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:34702–34714. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06791-7
Gao Y, Qian H, Huo C, Chen J, Wang H (2020) Assessing natural background levels in shallow groundwater in a large semiarid Drainage Basin. J Hydrol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124638
Hawkes HE, Webb JS (1962) Geochemistry in mineral exploration. Harper, New York
Hernandez-Garcia ME, Custodio E (2004) Natural baseline quality of Madrid Tertiary Detrital Aquifer groundwater (Spain): a basis for aquifer management. Environ Geol 46(2):173–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-004-1024-1
ISO 5667-11 (1993) Water quality. Sampling. Guidance on sampling of groundwaters
IWRM (Iran Water Resources Management) (2017) Groundwater Resuscitation and Balancing plan of the Country. IWRM, Dublin
Ji Y, Wu J, Wang Y, Elumalai V, Subramani T (2020) Seasonal variation of drinking water quality and human health risk assessment in Hancheng City of Guanzhong Plain. China Expo Health 12(3):469–485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00357-6
Kelly WR, Panno SV (2008) Some considerations in applying background concentrations to ground water studies. Ground Water 46(6):790–792. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2008.00467.x
Kim K-H, Yun S-T, Kim H-K, Kim J-W (2015) Determination of natural backgrounds and thresholds of nitrate in South Korean groundwater using model-based statistical approaches. J Geochem Explor 148:196–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.10.001
Li P, Qian H, Howard KWF, Wu J, Lyu X (2014) Anthropogenic pollution and variability of manganese in alluvial sediments of the Yellow River, Ningxia, northwest China. Environ Monit Assess 186(3):1385–1398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3461-3
Li P, Wu J, Qian H, Zhang Y, Yang N, Jing L, Yu P (2016) Hydrogeochemical characterization of groundwater in and around a wastewater irrigated forest in the southeastern edge of the Tengger Desert, Northwest China. Expo Health 8(3):331–348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0193-y
Li P, Tian R, Xue C, Wu J (2017) Progress, opportunities and key fields for groundwater quality research under the impacts of human activities in China with a special focus on western China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(15):13224–13234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8753-7
Li X, Li J, Sui H, He L, Cao X, Li Y (2018) Evaluation and determination of soil remediation schemes using a modified AHP model and its application in a contaminated coking plant. J Hazard Mater 353:300–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.04.010
Li P, He X, Guo W (2019) Spatial groundwater quality and potential health risks due to nitrate ingestion through drinking water: a case study in Yan’an City on the Loess Plateau of northwest China. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 25(1–2):11–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1553612
Li P, Karunanidhi D, Subramani T, Srinivasamoorthy K (2021) Sources and consequences of groundwater contamination. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 80(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00805-z
Masetti M, Poli S, Sterlacchini S, Beretta GP, Facchi A (2008) Spatial and statistical assessment of factors influencing nitrate contamination in groundwater. J Environ Manag 86:272–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.12.023
Matschullat J, Ottenstein R, Reimann C (2000) Geochemical background Can we calculate it? Environ Geol 39(9):990–1000. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002549900084
Mencio A, Mas-Pla J, Otero N, Regas O, Boy-Roura M, Puig R, Bach J, Domenech C, Zamorano M, Brusi D, Folch A (2016) Nitrate pollution of groundwater; all right…, but nothing else? Sci Total Environ 539:241–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.151
Molinari A, Guadagnini L, Marcaccio M, Guadagnini A (2012) Natural background levels and threshold values of chemical species in three large-scale groundwater bodies in northern Italy. Sci Total Environ 425:9–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.03.015
Muller D, Blum A, Hart A, Hookey J, Kunkel R, Scheidleder A, Tomlin C, Wendland F (2006) Final proposal for a methodology to set up groundwater threshold values in Europe. Report to the EU project “BRIDGE” 2006, Deliverable D18.
Nakhaei M, Amiri V, Rezaei K, Moosaei F (2015) An investigation of the potential environmental contamination from the leachate of the Rasht waste disposal site in Iran. Bull Eng Geol Environ 74(1):233–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0577-9
Nakic Z, Posavec K, Bacani A (2007) A visual basic spreadsheet macro for geochemical background analysis. Ground Water 45(5):642–647. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2007.00325.x
Parrone D, Ghergo S, Preziosi E (2019) A multi-method approach for the assessment of natural background levels in groundwater. Sci Total Environ 659:884–894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.350
Preziosi E, Giuliano G, Vivona R (2010) Natural background levels and threshold values derivation for naturally As, V and F rich groundwater bodies: a methodological case study in Central Italy. Environ Earth Sci 61:885–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0404-y
Preziosi E, Parrone D, Del Bon A, Ghergo S (2014) Natural background level assessment in groundwaters: probability plot versus pre-selection method. J Geochem Explor 143:43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.03.015
Rahman A, Mondal NC, Fauzia F (2020) Arsenic enrichment and its natural background in groundwater in the proximity of active floodplains of Ganga River, Northern India. Chemosphere. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129096
Reimann C, Garrett RG (2005) Geochemical background-concept and reality. Sci Total Environ 350(1–3):12–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.01.047
Ren X, Li P, He X, Su F, Elumalai V (2021) Hydrogeochemical processes affecting groundwater chemistry in the central part of the Guanzhong Basin, China. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 80(1):74–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00772-5
Rodrigues ASL, Malafaia G, Costa AT, Júnior HAN (2013) Background values for chemical elements in sediments of the Gualaxo Do Norte River Basin, Mg, Brazil. Revista De Ciências Ambientais, Canoas 7:2
Rotiroti M, Di Mauro B, Fumagalli L, Bonomi T (2015) COMPSEC, a new tool to derive natural background levels by the component separation approach: application in two different hydrogeological contexts in northern Italy. J Geochem Explor 158:44–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2015.06.017
Salomão GN, Dall’Agnol R, Sahoo PK, Júnior JSF, Silva MS, Filho PWMS, Berrêdo JF, Nascimento Junior WR, Costa MF (2018) Geochemical distribution and threshold values determination of heavy metals in stream water in the sub-basins of Vermelho and Sororó rivers, Itacaiúnas River watershed, Eastern Amazon, Brazil. Geochim Bras 32(2):180–198. https://doi.org/10.21715/GB2358-2812.2018322180
Salomão GN, Figueiredo MA, Dall’Agnol R, Sahoo PK, Filho CAM, Costa MF, Angélica RS (2019) Geochemical mapping and background concentrations of iron and potentially toxic elements in active stream sediments from Carajás, Brazil: implication for risk assessment. J S Am Earth Sci 92:151–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2019.03.014
Sanders CJ, Santos IR, Barcellos R, Silva Filho EV (2012) Elevated concentrations of dissolved Ba, Fe and Mn in a mangrove subterranean estuary: consequence of sea level rise? Cont Shelf Res 43:86–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2012.04.015
Sellerino M, Forte G, Ducci D (2019) Identification of the natural background levels in the Phlaegrean fields groundwater body (Southern Italy). J Geochem Explor 200:181–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.02.007
Shapiro SS, Wilk MB (1965) An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). Biometrika 52:591. https://doi.org/10.2307/2333709
Sohrabi N, Chitsazan M, Amiri V, Moradi Nezhad T (2013) Evaluation of groundwater resources in alluvial aquifer based on MODFLOW program, case study: evan plain (Iran). Int J Agric Crop Sci 5(11):1164–1170
Sohrabi N, Kalantari N, Amiri V, Nakhaei M (2017) Assessing the chemical behavior and spatial distribution of yttrium and rare earth elements (YREEs) in a coastal aquifer adjacent to the Urmia Hypersaline Lake, NW Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(25):20502–20520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9644-7
Sohrabi N, Kalantari N, Amiri V (2018) An evaluation of the distribution and behavior of uranium in Urmia aquifer. Iran Water Resour Res 14(3):236–252 (In Persian)
Sohrabi N, Kalantari N, Amiri V, Saha N, Berndtsson R, Bhattacharya P, Ahmad A (2020) A Probabilistic-deterministic analysis of human health risk related to the exposure to potentially toxic elements in groundwater of Urmia coastal aquifer (NW of Iran) with a special focus on arsenic speciation and temporal variation. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-020-01934-6
Stadler S, Osenbrück K, Knöller K, Suckow A, Sültenfuß J, Oser H, Himmelsbach T, Hötzl H (2008) Understanding the origin and fate of nitrate in groundwater of semi-arid environments. J Arid Environ 72(10):1830–1842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.06.003
Su Z, Wu J, He X, Elumalai V (2020) Temporal changes of groundwater quality within the groundwater depression cone and prediction of confined groundwater salinity using Grey Markov model in Yinchuan area of northwest China. Expo Health 12(3):447–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00355-8
Succop PA, Clark S, Chen M, Galke W (2004) Imputation of data values that are less than a detection limit. J Occup Environ Hyg 1(7):436–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459620490462797
Sun L (2019) Calculating environmental background value: a comparative study of statistical versus spatial analyses. Pol J Environ Stud 28(1):197–203. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/84837
Urresti-Estala B, Carrasco-Cantos F, Vadillo-Perez I, Jimenez-Gavilan P (2013) Determination of background levels on water quality of groundwater bodies: a methodological proposal applied to a Mediterraean River Basin (Guadalhorce River, Málaga, southern Spain). J Environ Manag 117:121–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.11.042
USEPA (2012) Edition of the drinking water standards and health advisories. U. S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington
Vázquez-Suñé E, Sánchez-Vila X, Carrera J (2004) Introductory review of specific factors influencing urban groundwater, an emerging branch of hydrogeology, with reference to Barcelona, Spain. Hydrogeol J 13(3):522–533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-004-0360-2
Wang W, Zhang Z, Duan L et al (2018) Response of the groundwater system in the Guanzhong Basin (central China) to climate change and human activities. Hydrogeol J 26(5):1429–1441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1757-7
Wang D, Wu J, Wang Y, Ji Y (2020) Finding High-Quality Groundwater Resources to Reduce the Hydatidosis Incidence in the Shiqu County of Sichuan Province, China: Analysis, Assessment, and Management. Expo Health 12(2):307–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-019-00314-y
Wendland F, Hannappel S, Kunkel R, Schenk R, Voigt HJ, Wolter R (2005) A procedure to define natural groundwater conditions of groundwater bodies in Germany. Water Sci Technol 51(3–4):249–257. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0598
WHO (2011) Guideline for drinking-water quality, 4th edn. World Health Organization, Geneva
Wu J, Wang L, Wang S, Tian R, Xue C, Feng W, Li Y (2017) Spatiotemporal variation of groundwater quality in an arid area experiencing long-term paper wastewater irrigation, northwest China. Environ Earth Sci 76(13):460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6787-2
Yan Y, Han L, Yu R-L, Hu G-R, Zhang W-F, Cui J-Y, Yan Y, Huang H-B (2020) Background determination, pollution assessment and source analysis of heavy metals in estuarine sediments from Quanzhou Bay, southeast China. CATENA 187:104322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104322
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all of the members of the GSI for their kind cooperation that made this research possible. We thank the editor and anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, which helped us to improve the paper. Dr. Peiyue Li is grateful for the support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42072286 and 41761144059), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of CHD (300102299301), the Fok Ying Tong Education Foundation (161098), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2015M580804, 2016M590911, 2016T090878 and 2017T100719), the Shaanxi Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2015BSHTDZZ09 and 2016BSHTDZZ03), and the Ten Thousand Talent Program (W03070125).
Funding
The research leading to these results received funding from the Geological Survey of Iran.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
VA: Conceptualization, methodology, figures and tables preparation, literature search and evaluation, writing the manuscript. MN, RL, and PL: Reviewing and editing the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Amiri, V., Nakhaei, M., Lak, R. et al. An integrated statistical-graphical approach for the appraisal of the natural background levels of some major ions and potentially toxic elements in the groundwater of Urmia aquifer, Iran. Environ Earth Sci 80, 432 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09733-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09733-0