Bioeroding Sponges and the Future of Coral Reefs

Abstract

Bioeroding sponges play a central role in carbonate cycling on corals reefs. They may respond differently to habitat deterioration than many other benthic invertebrates, because at some locations, their abundances increased after disturbance. We reviewed literature on these sponges in context of environmental change and provide meta-analyses at global level. A difficult taxonomy and scarce scientific expertise leave them inadequately studied, even though they are the best-known internal bioeroders. They are sheltered within the substrate they erode, appear to be comparatively resilient against environmental change and can have heat-resistant photosymbionts and ‘weedy’ traits, including multiple pathways to reproduce or disperse and fast growth and healing abilities. Especially temperature stress appears to disable calcifiers stronger than bioeroding sponges. Moreover, increases in bioeroding sponge abundances have been related to eutrophication and disturbances that led to coral mortality. Chemical sponge bioerosion is forecast to double with doubled partial pressure of carbon dioxide, but reduced substrate density may counteract this effect, as dominant sponges erode more in denser substrates. Case examples portray shifting impacts of bioeroding sponges with environmental change, with some reefs already being erosional. Most available data and the largest known species record are from the Caribbean. Data from the Coral Triangle and India are largely restricted to faunistic records. Red Sea, Japanese and cold-water reef bioeroding sponges are the least studied. We need more quality research on functions and interaction effects, about which we are still insufficiently informed. With many calcifiers increasingly failing and bioeroding sponges still doing well, at least at intermediate levels of local and global change, these sponges may continue to significantly affect coral reef carbonate budgets. This may transform them from valuable and necessary recyclers of calcium carbonate to problem organisms.

Appendices

Appendix A

Annotated faunistic list of sponge species confirmed or assumed to contribute to bioerosion in corals of selected bioregions. Based on Table 7.1, van Soest et al. (2017) and explanations given below, we accepted 260 valid sponges globally as separate species of confirmed or likely coral bioeroders, including all known morphologies. From this we generated a global analysis of bioeroding sponge biogeographies (Fig. 7.4). If available, additional OTUs (operational taxonomy units) were entered in the analysis if we could be reasonably sure not to duplicate existing records. For some decisions, we used NOAA Oceanservice (2014) and Wheeler et al. (2007) to judge which areas should be considered as supporting dense coral communities and chose bioregions as indicated and grouped below. As long as sponges occurred in known coral habitats, we assumed that they at least occasionally eroded coral materials, regardless of their morphology. While we examined details of many records, we took most publications at face value and caution the readers that difficult genera and groups such as Pione, Spheciospongia and the Cliona viridis complex will likely contain the largest rates of inaccuracies and that we are unable to provide an error value within the scope of this study. A few taxonomic decisions were nevertheless made if we considered the reasons as obvious, and these are explained below. Pending new results, we treated unresolved species complexes as one species, unless we could distinguish species within them based on the literature. An effort was made to include mostly original accounts on primary observations and to avoid secondary records compiled from the literature, as well as to divide records by habitats that were often defined by depth (shallow warm-water reefs versus corals being eroded in cold waters, deep or shallow—anything between 0 and 50 m was immediately scored as ‘shallow’). Publications on sponge biochemistry were avoided due to their often unreliable species identifications. For reasons given below, species names presented in brackets were not used for the biogeographic analysis. Abbreviations: Unconf. possible, but unconfirmed species record; ? author respective record by this author here needing confirmation, possibly erroneous identification or a tentative interpretation by us that this author may have meant this species; CS comments by Christine Schönberg; JLC comments by José Luis Carballo; AM Atlanto-Mediterranean sponges eroding cold-water corals; IP Indo-Pacific sponges eroding cold-water corals. Taxon validities and authorities were confirmed in van Soest et al. (2017), where full citations of original descriptions can also be found.

Species	Taxon authority	Type locality	References for reports in bioregion since original description (e.g.)
Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Florida and Bermuda (62 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Alectona jamaicensis	Pang, 1973	Jamaica, from 14 m	MacGeachy (1977), Scoffin et al. (1980), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Lehnert and van Soest (1998); CS: The type sample was eroding Porites furcata in 14 m and was thus used for the warm-water analysis
Amorphinopsis sp.	Not formally described	Reported from Belize	Rützler et al. (2014); CS: As the authors describe evidence that this sponge was actively excavating, we counted it for the biogeography data
Cervicornia cuspidifera	(De Lamarck, 1815)	Caribbean Sea	Topsent (1933, as Spirastrella), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, as Spheciospongia), Vicente (1990, as Spheciospongia), Rützler (1997), Rützler and Hooper (2000), Díaz (2005), Rützler et al. (2009), Hill et al. (2011), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012), Rützler et al. (2014)
Cliona acephala	Zea and López-Victoria, 2016	Caribbean Colombia	Very recent description, no other reports known
Cliona amplicavata	Rützler, 1974	Bermuda	Rützler (1974), MacGeachy (1977), Bromley (1978), Scoffin et al. (1980), ? van Soest (1981, as Cliona cf. amplicavata), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Kobluk and van Soest (1989), Hofman and Kielman (1992), Holmes (2000), Rützler et al. (2014), Ugalde et al. (2015); CS: Cliona amplicavata may be a species complex and should be studied with molecular means
Cliona aprica	Pang, 1973	Jamaica	Rützler (1975), MacGeachy (1977), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Vicente (1990), ? Gammill (1997), Lehnert and van Soest (1998), Perry (1998), Macdonald and Perry (2003), Valderrama and Zea (2003, as Cliona aprica-langae-caribbaea), Zea and Weil (2003), Díaz (2005), Granados et al. (2008), Rützler et al. (2009), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012), Romero et al. (2013), Valderrama and Zea (2013), Rützler et al. (2014)
(Cliona arenosa) taxon inquirendum	(Schmidt, 1870)	Florida Keys	Rützler et al. (2009); CS: According to van Soest et al. (2017), this species is a taxon inquirendum. Based on the original description, Cliona arenosa appears to be different from other local Cliona spp. but is very similar to Cliona tumula from Florida. As the two species could not adequately be compared during the present approach, only the species with the more comprehensive description was included into our biogeographic analysis
Cliona barbadensis	Holmes, 2000	Barbados	No other primary records found
Cliona caribbaea	Carter, 1882	St. Vincent	Topsent (1889), ? Topsent (1900, as Cliona viridis), de Laubenfels (1936a, 1953), Pang (1973, partly as Cliona langae), Rützler (1974), MacGeachy (1977), Bromley (1978), Pomponi (1979, partly as Cliona langae), Scoffin et al. (1980), van Soest (1981, as Cliona caribboea), Highsmith et al. (1983), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, partly as Cliona langae), Scott (1987, as Cliona langae), Rützler (1990), Vicente (1990), Hofman and Kielman (1992), Thomas (1996), Gammill (1997), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, partly as C. langae), Perry (1998, partly as Cliona langae), Holmes (2000), Rützler (2002a, includes Cliona aprica), Weil et al. (2002, as Cliona langae), Macdonald and Perry (2003, partly as Cliona langae), Valderrama and Zea (2003, as Cliona aprica-langae-caribbaea), Zea and Weil (2003), Callahan (2005), Collin et al. (2005), Díaz (2005), Díaz and Rützler (2007), Granados et al. (2008), González-Gándara et al. (2009), Rützler et al. (2009), Baquero (2010), Hill et al. (2011), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012), Schellinger (2013), Villamizar et al. (2014); CS: Most reports for this species need to be confirmed and may not have relied on an accurate identification. Accounts for Cliona caribbaea from 2003 and before may relate to different species, likely including Cliona aprica and Cliona tenuis
Cliona cf. celata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Topsent (1888, 1889), Arndt (1927), Hartman (1958), Little (1963), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Rützler et al. (2009), Schellinger (2013); CS: Cliona celata was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012). All faunistic accounts are unreliable, unless including molecular data. This report may or may not represent Cliona celata sensu stricto
Cliona delitrix	Pang, 1973	Jamaica	MacGeachy (1977), Pomponi (1979), Scoffin et al. (1980), van Soest (1981), Highsmith et al. (1983, as Cliona laticavicola), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, partly as Cliona laticavicola), Scott (1987, partly as Cliona laticavicola), Kobluk and van Soest (1989), Díaz et al. (1990), Hofman and Kielman (1992, as Cliona laticavicola), Lehnert (1993), Gammill (1997), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, partly as Cliona laticavicola), Perry (1998, partly as Cliona laticavicola), Holmes (2000), Rützler (2002b), Macdonald and Perry (2003, partly as Cliona laticavicola), Sardiñas and Alcolado (2004), Caballero et al. (2005), Callahan (2005), Collin et al. (2005), Díaz (2005), Ward-Paige et al. (2005), Zilberberg et al. (2006), Erwin and Thacker (2007), Mallela and Perry (2007, as Cliona laticavicola), Granados et al. (2008, as Cliona laticavicola), Baquero (2010, partly as Cliona laticavicola), González-Gándara et al. (2009), Rützler et al. (2009), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012), Schellinger (2013), Valderrama and Zea (2013, as Cliona laticavicola), Mueller et al. (2014), Villamizar et al. (2014), Chaves-Fonnegra et al. (2015), Halperin et al. (2016); CS: Chaves-Fonnegra et al. (2017) recently showed that Cliona laticavicola is an ecophenotype of and conspecific with Cliona delitrix, with the latter being the senior synonym by a few pages in Pang (1973)
Cliona dioryssa	(De Laubenfels, 1950a)	Bermuda	Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Hofman and Kielman (1992), Lehnert (1993), Thomas (1996)
(Cliona? dubbia) taxon inquirendum	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti, 1864)	Caribbean	No other primary records found. CS: The World Porifera Database lists this species as taxon inquirendum (van Soest et al. 2017). The original description is insufficient, and apparently there is no type material for this species (van Soest et al. 1983). We disregarded this species entirely
(Cliona? Pione? duvernoysii): genus transfer to Entobia duvernoysii new comb.	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin, 1850)	Caribbean	No other primary records found. CS: Taxon inquirendum (van Soest et al. 2017). According to the description by Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti (1864) this is not a biotaxon and a sponge, but a description of the ichnotaxon (Entobia duvernoysii new comb.). It is here not accepted as a record that can conclusively be matched with a bioeroding sponge and was ignored
Cliona ensifera	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	MacGeachy (1977), Scoffin et al. (1980), Highsmith et al. (1983), Holmes (2000); CS: Cliona ensifera is frequently found in the Indo-Pacific (see below) and has not formally been redescribed for the Caribbean. This record should be checked. Being different from the other local species, it was still counted
Cliona euryphylle	Topsent, 1888	Campeche, Gulf of Mexico	Topsent (1889, 1900), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, as Cliona euryphilla), Rützler et al. (2009)
Cliona flavifodina	Rützler, 1974	Bermuda	Hechtel (1965, as Cliona viridis; see explanation given by Rützler 1974), MacGeachy (1977), Bromley (1978), Scoffin et al. (1980), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Hofman and Kielman (1992, also as Cliona aff. flavifodina), Thomas et al. (1992), Thomas (1996), Holmes (2000), Rützler et al. (2014), Ugalde et al. (2015)
Cliona janitrix	Topsent, 1932	Strait of Bonifacio, Mediterranean	Pang (1973), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Scott (1987, as Cliona janatrix), Kobluk and van Soest (1989), Lehnert and van Soest (1998), Perry (1998)
(Cliona latens) taxon inquirendum	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti, 1864)	Caribbean	No other primary records found. CS: The World Porifera Database lists this species as taxon inquirendum (van Soest et al. 2017). While the original description suggests that this species may belong to the Cliona celata species complex, it is insufficient. Moreover, apparently there is no type material for this species (van Soest et al. 1983). We disregarded this species entirely
Cliona laticavicola	Pang, 1973	Jamaica	Highsmith et al. (1983), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Scott (1987), Hofman and Kielman (1992), Lehnert and van Soest (1998), Perry (1998), Macdonald and Perry (2003), Mallela and Perry (2007), Granados et al. (2008), Baquero (2010), Valderrama and Zea (2013)
Cliona lobata	Hancock, 1849	English Channel	Hartman (1958)
Cliona macgeachii	Holmes, 2000	Barbados	Scoffin et al. (1980, as Cliona sp. 2), Holmes (2000)
Unconf.: Cliona millepunctata	Hancock, 1849	Unknown. Was found in the king helmet, Cassis tuberosa, which occurs in the W Atlantic (N Carolina to Brazil), Caribbean and at the Cape Verde Islands	Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Rützler and Stone (1986); CS: These records are based on the original description by Hancock, who provided no information about the sample site. However, as the king helmet is rare in Florida and northwards but common in the West Indies (EOL Rapid Response Team 2017), we tentatively counted Cliona millepunctata for the Atlantic, but only for the Caribbean. Topsent (1900) reported another specimen from the Indian Ocean, but this is presently regarded as an erroneous account
(Cliona mucronata)	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	MacGeachy (1977), Scoffin et al. (1980), Scott (1987), Holmes (2000); CS: Cliona mucronata sensu stricto is frequently found in the Indo-Pacific (see below) and has not formally been redescribed for the Caribbean. This record should be checked and may represent Cliona cf. mucronata sensu Rützler et al. (2014; see below). Not being able to compare these two records and to avoid duplication, this one was excluded from the biogeography
Cliona aff. mucronata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: unknown, likely Indo-Pacific	Rützler et al. (2014, as Cliona cf. mucronata); CS: Cliona mucronata is frequently found in the Indo-Pacific (see below) and has not formally been redescribed for the Caribbean. The spicules depicted in this publication are not typical for Cliona mucronata sensu Sollas. But as this species is different from the other Caribbean species, it was used for the biogeography
Cliona paucispina	Rützler, 1974	Bermuda	MacGeachy (1977), Bromley (1978), Scoffin et al. (1980), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Thomas et al. (1992)
Cliona peponaca	Pang, 1973	Jamaica	Bak (1976), MacGeachy (1977), Highsmith et al. (1983), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Lehnert and van Soest (1998), Macdonald and Perry (2003)
(Cliona phallica) taxon inquirendum	Leidy, 1889	Florida, Gulf of Mexico	No other primary records found. CS: Cliona phallica was described as one of the most common sponges in the area, to be yellowish and to have a single osculum per column. As we did not access type material, the description makes it likely that this is a synonym of Cliona varians. Therefore, we did not consider Cliona phallica in our biogeography
(Unconf.: Cliona radiata)	Hancock, 1849	Unknown. Was found in the Atlantic triton, Charonia variegata, which occurs in the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Caribbean	See also Rützler and Stone (1986). CS: We do not know the exact origin of this sample. However, as confirmed sample locations for the Atlantic triton are in the western Atlantic (WoRMS Editorial Board 2017b), we ignored Cliona radiata for the Caribbean and Brazil but tentatively counted it for the Gulf of Guinea. It also may be a senior synonym of Cliona amplicavata
Cliona raphida	Boury-Esnault, 1973	Brazil	Díaz and Rützler (2007)
(Cliona saxicava) taxon inquirendum	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti, 1864)	Caribbean	No other primary records found. CS: The World Porifera Database lists this species as a valid species, but as incertae sedis (van Soest et al. 2017). However, while the original description suggests that this species may belong to the Cliona viridis species complex, it is insufficient. Apparently there is also no type material (van Soest et al. 1983), i.e. this should also be a taxon inquirendum. We disregarded this species entirely
Cliona cf. schmidtii	(Ridley, 1881); based on an erroneous record of a ‘variety’ of Vioa johnstonii in Schmidt, 1870 p. 5	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Topsent (1889, as Cliona johnstonii), Pang (1973), MacGeachy (1977), Pomponi (1979), Scoffin et al. (1980), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Kobluk and van Soest (1989, Lehnert and van Soest (1998), Perry (1998), Macdonald and Perry (2003), Mallela and Perry (2007), Rützler et al. (2009, 2014); JLC: Mediterranean and Caribbean Cliona schmidtii may be different species. CS: See van Soest et al. (2017) for a comment on this record. Spicules from sponges that were identified as Cliona schmidtii can be quite different, here leading to the assumption that the Caribbean material may not be conspecific with the type material (e.g. compare spicules pictured in Pang (1973) with those in Rosell and Uriz (2002a). However, there is at least one purple clionaid in the Caribbean; thus, it was used for the biogeographic analysis
(Cliona? Pione? strombi): genus transfer to Entobia strombi new comb.	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti, 1864)	Caribbean	No other primary records found. CS: Taxon inquirendum (van Soest et al. 2017). According to Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti (1864) this is not a biotaxon and a sponge, but a description of the ichnotaxon and the bioerosion trace (Entobia strombi new comb.). It is here not accepted as a record that can conclusively be matched with a bioeroding sponge and was ignored
(Cliona subulata)	Sollas, 1878	Unknown but sympatric with Cliona ensifera and Cliona mucronata, thus assumed as Indo-Pacific	Topsent (1889), Rützler et al. (2009); CS: Cliona subulata is assumed to be an Indo-Pacific species. It has tylostyles and spirasters with long, discrete spines. Sollas’ drawings of the spicules strongly resemble those of Pang (1973) for Cliona caribbaea, and pending new results, we did not use this species in the biogeography for this bioregion to avoid duplication by using possibly synonymous species. Sollas’ type material needs to be re-examined
Cliona tenuis	Zea and Weil, 2003	Caribbean Colombia	? Vicente (1990, as Anthosigmella sp.),? Gammill (1997, as Cliona langae), ? Valderrama and Zea (2003, as Cliona aprica-langae-caribbaea), Collin et al. (2005), Díaz (2005), Granados et al. (2008), Baquero (2010), González-Rivero et al. (2012, 2013), Valderrama and Zea (2013), Murphy et al. (2016)
(Unconf.: Cliona topsenti)	(Von Lendenfeld, 1898)	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Highsmith et al. (1983); CS: This might be a doubtful report as Cliona topsenti has not otherwise been rerecorded from outside of the Mediterranean and is a Cliona viridis complex species similar to other Caribbean species with a difficult taxonomy. We conservatively disregarded this report for the biogeographic analysis
Cliona tumula	Friday et al., 2013	Florida Keys	Hill et al. (2011, as ‘unidentified Cliona’), Schönberg pers. obs. (2008, as ‘unidentified Cliona’, Florida Keys); CS: Shares a significant number of characters with Schmidt’s Cliona arenosa (see above), which is also from Florida. Not having type material at our disposal, we only used Cliona tumula for our biogeography in order to avoid duplication of possibly synonymous species
Cliona undulata	(George and Wilson, 1919)	South Carolina	? Little (1963, as Cliona viridis), Bass (1993), Rützler et al. (2009)
Cliona varians	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti, 1864)	Caribbean	? Carter (1882, as Suberites coronarius), Topsent (1889, as Papillina arcuata), de Laubenfels (1949, 1953, as Anthosigmella), Little (1963, as Anthosigmella), Hechtel (1965, as Anthosigmella), Pang (1973, as Anthosigmella), Wiedenmayer (1977, as Anthosigmella), Vicente (1978, as Anthosigmella), ? van Soest (1981, as Cliona (Anthosigmella) sp.), van Soest et al. (1983, as Anthosigmella), Williams et al. (1983, as Anthosigmella), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, as Anthosigmella), Corredor et al. (1988, as Anthosigmella), Kobluk and van Soest (1989, as Anthosigmella), Díaz et al. (1990, as Anthosigmella), Vicente (1990, as Anthosigmella), Hofman and Kielman (1992, as Anthosigmella), Zea (1993, as Anthosigmella), Hill (1996, as Anthosigmella), Aerts and van Soest (1997, as Anthosigmella), Gammill (1997, as Anthosigmella), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, as Anthosigmella), Hill (1999, as Anthosigmella), Hill and Hill (2002, as Anthosigmella), Rützler (2002b), Valderrama and Zea (2003, as Anthosigmella), Sardiñas and Alcolado (2004), Caballero et al. (2005), Collin et al. (2005), Díaz (2005), Díaz and Rützler (2007), Erwin and Thacker (2007), Díaz and Zea (2008), Rützler et al. (2009), Baquero (2010), Amaro and Ramírez (2011), Hill et al. (2011), Stevely et al. (2011), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012), Schellinger (2013), Valderrama and Zea (2013), Rützler et al. (2014), Stubler et al. (2014), Villamizar et al. (2014)
Cliona vermifera	Hancock, 1867	Unknown. In Chama sp., information which does not provide further clues	Topsent (1888, 1889), Hechtel (1965), Pang (1973), MacGeachy (1977), Bromley (1978), Scoffin et al. (1980), van Soest (1981), Highsmith et al. (1983), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Rützler and Stone (1986), Scott (1987), Kobluk and van Soest (1989), Hofman and Kielman (1992), Lehnert and van Soest (1998), Perry (1998), Holmes (2000), Macdonald and Perry (2003), Mallela and Perry (2007), Rützler et al. (2009); CS: Cliona vermifera is thought to be a species complex (see, e.g. León-Pech et al. 2015), but pending new results is here treated as a single species
Cliona viridis	(Schmidt, 1862)	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Schmidt (1870, as Papillina suberea), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Rützler et al. (2009)
(Cliothosa hancocki)	(Topsent, 1888)	French Polynesia	Pulitzer-Finali (1986); CS: Pulitzer-Finali based this report on Topsent (1888, as Thoosa hancocci, for the Indo-Pacific) and Rützler (1973, for Tunisia). Neither of these two authors lists the species for the W Atlantic. We ignored this record for the wider Caribbean. CS regards this name as a species complex that needs to be resolved per respective bioregion
Cornulella santamartae	(Van Soest et al., 1994)	Caribbean Colombia	Díaz and Zea (2008)
Cornulum johnsoni	(De Laubenfels, 1934)	Greater Antilles	Pulitzer-Finali (1986), van Soest et al. (1994), Rützler et al. (2014)
Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus	(Schmidt, 1868)	Algeria, Mediterranean	? Van Soest (1981, as Dercitus cf. plicatus), ? Kobluk and van Soest (1989, as Dercitus sp.; the authors state that this may be a new species)
Diplastrella bistellata	(Schmidt, 1862)	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Zea (1993), Rützler et al. (2009, as Spirastrella)
Diplastrella megastellata	Hechtel, 1965	Jamaica	Kobluk and van Soest (1989), Lehnert and van Soest (1998), Díaz (2005), Díaz and Rützler (2007), van Soest (2009), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012)
(Diplastrella ministrella) taxon inquirendum	Gammill, 1997	Florida	No other primary records found. CS: Van Soest (2017) discussed the status of this species. It was here ignored
Haliclona (Halichoclona) vansoesti	De Weerdt et al., 1999	Curaçao	Erwin and Thacker (2007), Valderrama and Zea (2013), Rützler et al. (2014)
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Topsent (1888, 1889, as Cliona), Rützler et al. (2009); CS: Species of the genus Pione are taxonomically difficult, and this record is based on very old publications on a Pacific species. Nevertheless, Pione carpenteri has rather robust tylostyles, and this record may thus be distinct from the other Pione species in the bioregion. This species was tentatively counted
(Pione? dissociata): genus transfer to Entobia dissociata new comb.	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin, 1850)	Caribbean	No other primary records found. CS: According to Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti (1864) this is not a biotaxon and a sponge, but a description of a ichnotaxon and bioerosion trace (Entobia dissociata new comb.). It is here not accepted as a record that can conclusively be matched with a bioeroding sponge and was ignored
(Unlikely record: Pione fryeri)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown. Was found in window pane oyster, Placuna placenta, which occurs between the Gulf of Aden and the Philippines	No other reports known for the wider Caribbean. CS: Van Soest et al. (2017) list the Caribbean Vioa/Pione dissociata as a synonym for Pione fryeri. However, as the description for Vioa dissociata appears to be for a bioerosion trace, it cannot conclusively be matched to a single sponge species (see comments for Pione dissociata). Moreover, as the type of Pione fryeri inhabited a windowpane oyster, its occurrence in the Caribbean is rather unlikely. Placuna placenta is commercially very important in the Philippines, and we tentatively assumed that the sample was from there and counted Pione fryeri only for the Coral Triangle
Pione lampa	(De Laubenfels, 1950b)	Bermuda	De Laubenfels (1953, as Cliona), Little (1963, as Cliona), Neumann (1966, as Cliona), Pang (1973, as Cliona), Rützler and Rieger (1973, as Cliona), Rützler (1975, as Cliona), MacGeachy (1977, as Cliona), Bromley (1978, as Cliona), Scoffin et al. (1980, as Cliona), van Soest (1981, as Cliona), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, as Cliona), Hofman and Kielman (1992, as Cliona), Thomas et al. (1992, as Cliona), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, as Cliona), Perry (1998, as Cliona), Holmes (2000, as Cliona cf. vastifica), Schönberg (2002b), Rützler 2002c, as Cliona), Macdonald and Perry (2003, as Cliona), Callahan (2005, as Cliona), Ward-Paige et al. (2005, as Cliona), Mallela and Perry (2007, as Cliona), Rützler et al. (2009), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012), Enochs et al. (2015)
Pione truitti	(Old, 1941)	Chesapeake Bay	Hartman (1958, as Cliona), Little (1963, as Cliona), Turner (1985, as Cliona), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, as Cliona), Rützler et al. (2009); CS: The genus Pione is taxonomically difficult and confused, and the alpha-morphology Pione spp. of the Caribbean have not convincingly been redescribed or distinguished. At present, we follow Old (1941) and assume that the records for Pione truitti and Pione vastifica refer to different species
Pione cf. vastifica	(Hancock, 1849)	Scotland	Topsent (1888, 1889, as Cliona), de Laubenfels (1949, as Cliona), Hartman (1958, as Cliona), Little (1963, as Cliona), Bromley (1978, as Cliona), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, as Cliona), Holmes (2000, as Cliona), Rützler et al. (2009); CS: The genus Pione is taxonomically difficult and confused, and the alpha-morphology Pione spp. of the Caribbean have not convincingly been redescribed or distinguished. At present, we follow Old (1941) and assume that the records for Pione truitti and Pione vastifica refer to different species
Clionaid undetermined aff. Pione enigmatica sensu Moraes (2011)	Not formally described but reported in Rützler et al. (2014, as Cliona sp.)	Reported from Belize	No other reports known. CS: This sponge has unusual, complicated spirasters or spined rhabds not unlike those in, e.g. some Thoosidae. These microrhabds strongly resemble those in Pione enigmatica from Brazil, which is different from this species. It is presently not possible to conclusively allocate this material to a known genus, but it differs from all other known species and was counted
Samus anonymus	Gray, 1867	Brazil	Carter (1879), de Laubenfels (1950a), Rützler et al. (2009, 2014)
Scolopes megastra	De Laubenfels, 1953	Florida, Gulf of Mexico	Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Rützler et al. (2009)
Siphonodictyon brevitubulatum	Pang, 1973	Jamaica	? Topsent (1889, as Cliona labyrinthica), Rützler (1971), MacGeachy (1977), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Zea (1987), Hofman and Kielman (1992, as Aka aff. brevitubulata), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, as Aka), Perry (1998, as Aka), Macdonald and Perry (2003, as Aka), Valderrama and Zea (2003, as Aka), Caballero et al. (2005, as Aka), Díaz (2005, as Aka cf. brevitubulatum), Carballo et al. (2007, as Aka), Mallela and Perry (2007, as Aka), Schönberg and Beuck (2007, as Aka), Murphy et al. (2016)
Siphonodictyon cachacrouense	Rützler, 1971	Dominica	MacGeachy (1977), Scoffin et al. (1980), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Zea (1993, as Aka), Aerts and van Soest (1997, as Aka), Gammill (1997), Schönberg and Beuck (2007, as Aka)
Siphonodictyon coralliphagum	Rützler, 1971	Jamaica	Rützler (1971), MacGeachy (1977), Scoffin et al. (1980), van Soest (1981), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Scott (1987), Zea (1987), Kobluk and van Soest (1989, as Aka), Hofman and Kielman (1992, as Aka), Lehnert (1993), Gammill (1997), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, 1999, as Aka), Luke (1998, as Aka), Caballero et al. (2005, as Aka), Collin et al. (2005, as Aka), Díaz (2005, as Aka coralliphagon), Díaz and Rützler (2007, as Aka), Schönberg and Beuck (2007, as Aka), Rützler et al. (2009, as Aka), Baquero (2010), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012, as Aka), ? Mueller et al. (2014, as Siphonodictyon sp.), Rützler et al. (2014), Villamizar et al. (2014)
(Siphonodictyon densum)	(Schmidt, 1868)	Gulf of Mexico	Van Soest et al. (2014, as Siphonodictyon viridescens); CS: The recent redescription for Siphonodictyon viridescens provides spicule dimensions that very well match those of Siphonodictyon densum, which has characteristic, unusually large oxeas for the genus. However, the sponge was reported from depths significantly deeper than 100 m, and it was not included in the biogeographic analysis for warm-water habitats in the Caribbean
Siphonodictyon occultum	Rützler et al., 2014	Belize	To date, no other primary records available
Siphonodictyon ruetzleri	Calcinai et al., 2007a	Belize	Calcinai et al. (2007b, as Aka), Rützler et al. (2014)
Siphonodictyon siphonum	(De Laubenfels, 1949)	Bahamas	Rützler (1971), Wiedenmayer (1977), Williams et al. (1983), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Hofman and Kielman (1992, as Aka), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, as Aka), Díaz and Rützler (2007, as Aka), Rützler et al. (2009, as Aka), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012, as Aka)
Siphonodictyon terebrans	(Schmidt, 1870)	St. Thomas	? Carballo et al. (2007, as Aka coralliphagum); CS: After assessing a slide of the type material (2006), CS tentatively recognises this species as different from the other Siphonodictyon spp., and we counted it separately. Carballo et al.’s (2007) material resembles it but was not formally compared
(Siphonodictyon viridescens)	(Schmidt, 1880)	Barbados	No other primary records found. CS: The record by van Soest (2017, as Siphonodictyon viridescens) is here regarded as Siphonodictyon densum. Both species occur well below 100 m water depth and have not yet been observed to erode coral materials. Both were excluded from the biogeographic analysis for warm-water habitats in the wider Caribbean
Siphonodictyon xamaycaense	Pulitzer-Finali, 1986	Jamaica	Hofman and Kielman (1992, as Aka aff. xamaycaensis), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, 1999, as Aka), Rützler et al. (2014)
(Unlikely record: Spheciospongia papillosa)	(Ridley and Dendy, 1886)	Sydney Harbour, Australia	Rützler et al. (2009); CS: Unlikely report for a taxonomically comparatively difficult species that was originally found in the Pacific. As this record cannot conclusively be compared with Spheciospongia vesparium, it was ignored for the biogeography to avoid possible duplication
Spheciospongia vesparium	(De Lamarck, 1815)	Caribbean	Arndt (1927, as Spirastrella pulvinata), Topsent (1933), Schmidt (1870, as Papillina cribrosa), de Laubenfels (1934, as Pseudosuberites melanos, 1936b, 1949, 1950a, as Spheciospongia othella, 1953, partly as Prianos tierney), Little (1963), Hechtel (1965), Wiedenmayer (1977), Bromley (1978, as Spheciospongia othella), van Soest (1981), Westinga and Hoetjes (1981), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Díaz et al. (1990), Vicente (1990), Hofman and Kielman (1992), Thomas et al. (1992, as Spheciospongia othella), Lehnert (1993), Lehnert and van Soest (1998), Macdonald and Perry (2003, as Spheciospongia othella), Sardiñas and Alcolado (2004, as Cliona), Caballero et al. (2005), Collin et al. (2005), Díaz (2005), Rützler et al. (2009, partly as Spheciospongia cribosa), Stevely et al. (2011), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012), Schellinger (2013), Rützler et al. (2014)
Spirastrella coccinea	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti, 1864)	Caribbean	De Laubenfels (1936b), Dickinson (1945), de Laubenfels (1949, 1950a), Little (1963), Hechtel (1965), Wiedenmayer (1977), van Soest (1981), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Kobluk and van Soest (1989), Aerts and van Soest (1997), Lehnert and van Soest (1998, 1999), Valderrama and Zea (2003), Caballero et al. (2005, as Spitastrella), Collin et al. (2005), Díaz (2005), Díaz and Rützler (2007), Erwin and Thacker (2007), Díaz and Zea (2008), Rützler et al. (2009), Herrera-Moreno et al. (2012), Schellinger (2013), Valderrama and Zea (2013)
Spirastrella coccinopsis	(De Laubenfels, 1953)	Gulf of Mexico	Little (1963), Pulitzer-Finali (1986), Zea (1993), Rützler et al. (2009, 2014)
Spirastrella hartmani	Boury-Esnault et al., 1999	Caribbean Panama	Arndt (1927, as Spirastrella cunctatrix), de Laubenfels (1936a, as Spirastrella cunctatrix), Wiedenmayer (1977, as Spirastrella cunctatrix), Pulitzer-Finali (1986, as Spirastrella cunctatrix), Boury-Esnault et al. (1999), Collin et al. (2005), Díaz (2005), Díaz and Rützler (2007), Amaro and Ramírez (2011), Valderrama and Zea (2013)
Spirastrella mollis	Verrill, 1907	Bermuda	Thomas et al. (1992), Thomas (1996), Collin et al. (2005), Díaz (2005, as Spirastrella cf. mollis), Díaz and Rützler (2007), Rützler et al. (2014), ? Ugalde et al. (2015, as Spirastrella aff. mollis)
(Spirastrella phyllodes) taxon inquirendum	(Schmidt, 1870)	Antilles	Rützler et al. (2009); CS: Taxon inquirendum (van Soest et al. 2017). Pending new results and confirmation of this species, it was not included into the biogeography to avoid possible duplication with other species
Spiroxya spiralis	(Johnson, 1899)	Azores	Rützler et al. (2014)
Cf. Suberea flavolivescens	(Hofman and Kielman, 1992)	Caribbean Colombia	? Kobluk and van Soest (1989, as ‘keratose?excavating sponge’), Valderrama and Zea (2013), Rützler et al. (2014)
Thoosa armata	Topsent, 1888	Gulf of Guinea	Arndt (1927), van Soest (1981), Pulitzer-Finali (1986)
Timea oxyasterina	Rützler et al., 2014	Belize	Recent description. To date, no other reports known for the wider Caribbean
Triptolemma endolithicum	Van Soest, 2009	Caribbean Colombia	No other reports known for the wider Caribbean
(Volzia cf. albicans)	(Volz, 1939)	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Highsmith et al. (1983, as Cliona cf. albicans); CS: Possibly same species as below? Conservatively, only one was included in the biogeography
Volzia cf. rovignensis	(Volz, 1939)	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	MacGeachy (1977, as Cliona ?rovignensis), Scoffin et al. (1980, as Cliona ?rovignensis), Holmes (2000, as Cliona rovignensis); CS: Possibly same species as above? Conservatively, only one was included in the biogeography, and we took the one more commonly mentioned
Zyzzya invemar	(Van Soest et al., 1994)	Caribbean Colombia	No other primary records found
Brazil and NE coast of South America, including Guyana (25 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Cervicornia cuspidifera	(De Lamarck, 1815)	Caribbean Sea	Muricy et al. (2011), Cavalcanti (2013), van Soest (2017), F. Moraes et al. unpubl. data (2017)
Cliona carteri	(Ridley, 1881)	Victoria Bank, 20°42′S, 37°27′W	Muricy et al. (2011, as mere record), Moraes et al. unpubl. data (2017); CS: This species may have largely been misunderstood, which depends on its colour. Ridley described it as ‘vivid crimson’ (red) in alcohol, but red colours in clionaids normally dull over time. He also stated that the colour was identical with that of Cliona schmidtii (Vioa johnstonii sensu Schmidt 1870) and very similar to that of Spheciospongia purpurea, which would make the colour a bright purple, not red. Purple pigments in some clionaids are remarkably stable after sampling, and we presently consider Cliona carteri to be a purple sponge. The question of the colour had already been raised by Topsent (1900). Regardless of the colour, Cliona carteri has significantly longer tylostyles than Cliona schmidtii sensu Boury-Esnault (1973) reported from Brazil. For Brazil, we considered Cliona carteri as a separate species for our biogeographic analysis
Cliona cf. celata – clade C sensu de Paula et al. (2012)	Grant, 1826	Sensu stricto: Scotland	? Boury-Esnault (1973), ? Muricy and Moraes (1998), ? Reis and Leão (2002), ? Muricy and Hajdu (2006), ? Muricy et al. (2011), ? Cavalcanti (2013, as Cliona celata complex sp.); CS: Cliona celata is a morphologically difficult and unresolved species complex (Xavier et al. 2010). At least one of the two reported Brazilian records differs from Cliona celata sensu stricto; they were distinguished from each other with molecular means (de Paula et al. 2012) and are used in our analysis as two different species
Cliona aff. celata – clade D sensu de Paula et al. (2012)	Not formally described	Reported from Brazil	? Boury-Esnault (1973), ? Muricy and Moraes (1998), ? Reis and Leão (2002), ? Muricy and Hajdu (2006), ? Muricy et al. (2011), ? Cavalcanti (2013, as Cliona celata complex sp.); CS: Cliona celata is a morphologically difficult and partially unresolved species complex (Xavier et al. 2010). At least one of the two reported Brazilian records differs from Cliona celata sensu stricto; they were distinguished from each other with molecular means (de Paula et al. 2012) and are used in our analysis as two different species
Cliona delitrix	Pang, 1973	Jamaica	Muricy et al. (2011), F. Moraes et al. unpubl. data
Cliona dioryssa	(De Laubenfels, 1950)	Bermuda	Muricy and Hajdu (2006), F. Muricy et al. (2011), Zalmon et al. (2011), Moraes et al. unpubl. data (2017)
(Unconf.: Cliona millepunctata)	Hancock, 1849	Unknown. Was found in the king helmet, Cassis tuberosa, which occurs in the W Atlantic (N Carolina to Brazil), Caribbean and at the Cape Verde Islands	No other reports known. CS: We do not know the exact origin of this sample. However, as the king helmet ‘is rare in Florida and northwards but common in the West Indies’ (EOL Rapid Response Team 2017), we tentatively counted Cliona millepunctata within the Atlantic, but only for the Caribbean. Topsent (1900) reported another specimen from the Indian Ocean, but this is presently regarded as an erroneous account
(Unconf.: Cliona radiata)	Hancock, 1849	Unknown. Was found in the Atlantic triton, Charonia variegata, which occurs in the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Caribbean	No other reports known. CS: We do not know the exact origin of this sample. However, as confirmed sample locations for the Atlantic triton are in the western Atlantic (WoRMS Editorial Board 2017c), we ignored Cliona radiata for the Caribbean and Brazil but tentatively counted it for the Gulf of Guinea. It also may be a senior synonym of Cliona ampliclavata
Cliona raphida	Boury-Esnault, 1973	Brazil	Boury-Esnault (1973)
Cliona cf. schmidtii	(Ridley, 1881); based on an erroneous record of a ‘variety’ of Vioa johnstonii in Schmidt, 1870 p. 5	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Boury-Esnault (1973), ? Cavalcanti (2013); CS: Spicules from sponges that were identified as Cliona schmidtii can be quite different, and reports require confirmation (see spicules pictured in Pang 1973, Rosell and Uriz 2002)
Cliona varians	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti, 1864)	Caribbean Sea	Muricy and Moraes (1998, as Anthosigmella), Moraes (2011), Muricy et al. (2011), Cavalcanti (2013), F. Moraes et al. unpubl. data (2017)
Cliona viridis	(Schmidt, 1862)	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Leal et al. (2016; with molecular support)
Cliona sp. undetermined, red (aff. flavifodina?)	Awaiting assessment	From Bahía, Brazil	? Topsent (1900, as Cliona viridis var. carteri, described as ‘scarlet red’), F. Moraes et al. unpubl. data (2017)
Diplastrella megastellata	Hechtel, 1965	Jamaica	Moraes (2011)
(Diplastrella spirastrelloides)	Van Soest, 2017	French Guiana	Very recent description, no other records known. CS: Diplastrella spirastrelloides encrusted coarse sediments in 94 m depth and was presently not counted as a coral bioeroder
Haliclona (Halichoclona) vansoesti	De Weerdt et al., 1999	Curaçao	Muricy et al. (2015)
Pione aff. carpenteri	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Mazatlán	Boury-Esnault (1973, as Cliona), Cavalcanti (2013); CS: The genus Pione is taxonomically difficult, and this record is based on very old publications on a Pacific species. While the species may not be Pione carpenteri, no other typical Pione sp. has been recorded from Brazil, and it was here counted
Pione enigmatica: recommendation to reassess genus allocation	Moraes, 2011	Brazil	No other reports known. CS: This species has tylostyles, smooth oxeas and microrhabds with unusual, complicated spines not unlike, e.g. in some Thoosidae. The microrhabds strongly resemble those in Cliona sp. sensu Rützler et al. (2014) from Belize. We cannot conclusively allocate this material to a known genus, but it differs from all the other known species
Samus anonymus	Gray, 1867	Brazil	Sollas (1888b)
Scolopes moseleyi	Sollas, 1888	Brazil	Cavalcanti (2013)
Siphonodictyon brevitubulatum	Pang, 1973	Jamaica	Moraes (2011, as Siphonodictyon coralliphagum)
Siphonodictyon coralliphagum	Rützler, 1971	Jamaica	F. Moraes et al. unpubl. data (2017)
Siphonodictyon sp.	Not yet formally described	From Bahía, Brazil	F. Moraes et al. unpubl. data 2017; CS: This Siphonodictyon sp. is different from the other species known from Brazil
(Siphonodictyon aff. densum)	(Schmidt, 1870)	Gulf of Mexico	Van Soest (2017); CS: Schmidt’s species was described with small fistules (‘barely the width of a quill’), while Van Soest (2017) reported fistules of 1 cm thickness. This may not be a strong, distinctive character, but the holotype has sharply pointed oxeas on average 240 μm long (C. Schönberg unpubl. data 2005), i.e. significantly longer oxeas than recorded by van Soest (2017). The latter material may not be Siphonodictyon densum. It was also sampled from 130 m depth and may thus not be a typical coral reef sponge. It was presently not counted in our biogeographic analysis
Spheciospongia symbioticum	Hechtel, 1983	Brazil	Cavalcanti (2013)
Spheciospongia vesparium	(De Lamarck, 1815)	Caribbean Sea	Muricy et al. (2008), Cavalcanti (2013), F. Moraes et al. unpubl. data (2017)
Spirastrella coccinea	(Duchassaing de Fonbressin and Michelotti, 1864)	Caribbean Sea	Muricy and Moraes (1998), Muricy et al. (2011)
Spirastrella erylicola	Van Soest, 2017	French Guiana	Very recent description, no other records known
Spirastrella hartmani	Boury-Esnault et al., 1999	Caribbean Panama	? De Laubenfels (1956, as Spirastrella cunctatrix), Moraes (2011), Muricy et al. (2011), Cavalcanti (2013)
Gulf of Guinea (8 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Cliona aethiopica	Burton, 1932	Gulf of Guinea	No other primary records found
Cliona lobata	Hancock, 1849	English Channel	Topsent (1918)
Unconf.: Cliona radiata	Hancock, 1849	Unknown. Was found in the Atlantic triton, Charonia variegata, which occurs in the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Caribbean	No other reports known. CS: We do not know the exact origin of this sample. However, as confirmed sample locations for the Atlantic triton are in the western Atlantic (WoRMS Editorial Board 2017b), we ignored Cliona radiata for the Caribbean and Brazil but tentatively counted it for the Gulf of Guinea. It also may be a senior synonym of Cliona ampliclavata
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Topsent (1918, as Cliona); CS: The genus Pione is taxonomically difficult, and this record is based on very old publications on a Pacific species. As ‘carpenteri’ and ‘vastifica’ were reported by the same author, we assume that they represent two different Pione spp. Therefore, two Pione spp. were counted for the biogeography analysis of this bioregion
Pione vastifica	(Hancock, 1849)	Scotland	Topsent (1918, as Cliona)
Samus anonymus	Gray, 1867	Brazil	Lévi (1959a)
Spirastrella cunctatrix	Schmidt, 1868	Algeria, Mediterranean	Topsent (1918), Lévi (1959a)
Thoosa armata	Topsent, 1888	Gulf of Guinea	Topsent (1918), Lévi (1959a)
Red Sea, Persian Gulf and W Arabian Sea (19 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Cliona aff. celata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	? Row (1911), ? Nazemi et al. (2015); CS: The authors’ species identifications should be reassessed. For the time being, this record is counted as a separate species for the bioregion
Cliona aff. dioryssa	Sensu stricto: (De Laubenfels, 1950)	Sensu stricto: Bermuda	Eisapor et al. (2012), Eisapor and Safaeian (2013); CS: The papillae figured by the authors strongly resemble those of Cliothosa aurivillii. Regardless of the exact species identification, this is a different species than other species known from the area and was counted in our analysis
Cliona jullieni	Topsent, 1891	La Réunion	Ferrario et al. (2010)
(Clionaid sp. undetermined 1, aff. Cliona jullieni or Cliona rhodensis)	Not morphologically identified	Reported from the Red Sea	Erpenbeck et al. (2016, as Cliona sp. OTU#04); CS: See their 28S and COI reconstruction. Here not counted for biogeographic analysis to avoid possible duplication with either Cliona jullieni above or other Cliona viridis complex species as below
(Clionaid sp. undetermined 2, aff. Cliona jullieni or Cliona rhodensis)	Not morphologically identified	Reported from the Red Sea	Erpenbeck et al. (2016, as Cliona sp. GW3452); CS: See their 28S and COI reconstruction. Here not counted to avoid possible duplication with either Cliona jullieni above or other Cliona viridis complex species as below
(Cliona subulata)	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, but sympatric with Cliona ensifera and Cliona mucronata, thus assumed as Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: Cliona subulata has tylostyles and spirasters with long, discrete spines. Sollas’ drawings of the spicules suggest that the species belongs to the Cliona viridis complex, of which there are other species in the area that cannot adequately be compared with Cliona subulata. Pending new results, we did not use Cliona subulata in the biogeography to avoid possible duplication. Sollas’ type material needs to be re-examined
Cliona viridis complex sp. or spp.	Unresolved species complex	Cliona orientalis sensu stricto: Molucca Sea, Indonesia	Lévi (1958, as Cliona orientalis), Fishelson (1971, as Cliona orientalis), ? Erpenbeck et al. (2016, as Cliona sp. OTU#03); CS: This record needs to be confirmed. New, similar species were described that may occur in the area, and there may be more than one Cliona viridis complex species.
Cliothosa aff. hancocki	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: French Polynesia	Lévi (1965a); CS regards this name as a species complex that needs to be resolved per respective bioregion, and Lévi’s spicules look odd. It is here still counted as a species distinct from the others occurring in this region
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Referring to Hancock’s sample and thus not reporting a confirmed sample site: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: It is possible that Cornulella purpurea occurs in this bioregion, but as the sample site is unknown and cannot be conclusively matched to our bioregions, this species did not become part of our analysis
Diplastrella gardineri	Topsent, 1918	Maldives	Lévi (1958)
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Doroudi (1996, as Cliona), Ferrario et al. (2010); CS: The genus Pione is taxonomically difficult, and this record is based on a very old publication of an E Pacific species. However, while the exact species identification may need to be reconfirmed, the latter authors distinguished three species of Pione by molecular means, so it can here be counted for the biogeography
Cf. Pione cervina	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown. Found in a pearl shell, Pinctada cf. albina, which occurs in the Red Sea	No other primary records found. CS: Taxon inquirendum (van Soest et al. 2017). Has tuberculate diactines unusual for Pione (Rützler and Stone 1986). But as it differs from the other species, it is here tentatively counted (based on the vague identification of the host shell)
Pione margaritiferae	(Dendy, 1905)	Gulf of Mannar	Doroudi (1996, as Cliona), Ferrario et al. (2010); CS: The genus Pione is taxonomically difficult, and this record is based on a comparatively old publication of an Indian species. However, while the exact species identification may need to be reconfirmed, the authors distinguished three species of Pione by molecular means, so it can here be counted for the biogeographic analysis
Pione mussae	(Keller, 1891)	Central Red Sea, Sudan	Bertram (1936, as Cliona), Lévi (1958, as Cliona vastifica), ? Doroudi (1996, as Cliona vastifica), Beer and Ilan (1998, as Cliona vastifica), Steindler et al. (2001, as Cliona vastifica), Ferrario et al. (2010, as Pione cf. vastifica and Pione cf. lampa), Bruckner and Dempsey (2015, as ‘bioeroding sponge’), Nazemi et al. (2015, as Cliona vastifica), Erpenbeck et al. (2016, as Pione cf. vastifica OTU#07); CS: This refers to the bright orange-red, papillate or encrusting-endolithic species that is most commonly reported in beta morphology, and the authors separated this species from the other two Pione spp. in the Red Sea by molecular analysis. Three species were counted
Siphonodictyon sp.	Not formally described, noticed by C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2006)	Gulf of Aden	No other primary records found. CS thinks this is an undescribed Siphonodictyon sp. (working name ‘zipallapiz’)
Spheciospongia inconstans	(Dendy, 1887)	Madras	Lévi (1965a, as Spirastrella), Fishelson (1971, as Spirastrella), ? Van Soest and Beglinger (2008, as Spheciospongia tentorioides)
Spheciospongia mastoidea	(Keller, 1891)	Southern Red Sea, Eritrea	No other primary records found
Spheciospongia cf. vagabunda	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	Erpenbeck et al. (2016, as Spirastrella OTU#05); CS: Gamma morphology. See their 28S reconstruction
Spirastrella decumbens	Ridley, 1884	Torres Straits	Keller (1891), Lévi (1958), Lévi (1965a, as Spirastrella cunctatrix), Fishelson (1971, as Spirastrella cunctatrix), ? Erpenbeck et al. (2016, as OTU #06), CS: See their 28S and COI reconstructions. Van Soest et al. (2017) consider records of Spirastrella cunctatrix as incorrect for the Red Sea. As this species is very similar to Spirastrella decumbens, we tentatively listed respective reports as Spirastrella decumbens
Spirastrella cf. hartmani	Boury-Esnault et al., 1999	Caribbean Panama	Erpenbeck et al. (2016, as GW5949), CS: See their 28S and COI reconstructions
Spirastrella pachyspira	Lévi, 1958	E Red Sea, Saudi Arabia	No other records known from the Red Sea
(Unconf.: Thoosa cactoides)	Hancock, 1849	Unknown. In the pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: As we do not know the exact type location of this species, we did not count it for any specific bioregion
Unconf.: Thoosa circumflexa	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	? Lévi (1965a, as Thoosa armata), ? Fishelson (1971, as Thoosa armata); CS: According to van Soest et al. (2017), Thoosa circumflexa is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. The Red Sea records are for Thoosa armata, which is an Atlantic species, and according to van Soest et al. (2017) it does not occur in the Red Sea. Lévi’s drawings appeared to be most similar to drawings CS made of spicules of Thoosa circumflexa, which is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Red Sea. The present decision is very tentative, but the species counted for our biogeographic analysis
Unconf.: Thoosa letellieri	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Red Sea. According to van Soest et al. (2017), this is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. As we decided that Thoosa circumflexa might occur in the Red Sea (see above) and the type of Thoosa letellieri was found in the same shell, we tentatively counted the latter as well
E Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Reunion and Mauritius (38 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Alectona primitiva	Topsent, 1932	Kangaroo Island, S Australia, in the whirling abalone Haliotis cyclobates (as Haliotis excavata)	Vacelet and Vasseur (1971, from shallow water)
Alectona wallichii	(Carter, 1874)	Agulhas Bank, S of Africa (Carter: also from the ‘South Sea’ and Seychelles), first reported as spicules in sediment	Vacelet (1999, from shallow water)
Amorphinopsis excavans	Carter, 1887	W Andaman Sea	Thomas (1973); CS: Amorphinopsis excavans is seen as an Indo-Pacific species, but characters described in older accounts vary. The species (complex?) needs to be re-examined and revised (Carvalho et al. 2004)
Aff. Cervicornia cuspidifera	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Caribbean Sea	Thomas (1973, 1981, as Spirastrella cuspidifera); CS: Cervicornia cuspidifera is a Caribbean species. Other endopsammic clionaids exist in the Indo-Pacific, and this account needs to be re-examined. It was still counted as a species different from the others in the area
Cliona albimarginata	Calcinai et al., 2005	N Sulawesi	? Thomas (1981, as Cliona viridis), ? Pulitzer-Finali (1993, as Cliona viridis), ? Calcinai et al. (2000, as Spheciospongia varians), ? Schleyer et al. (2006, as Anthosigmella orientalis), Azzini in Calcinai et al. (2008a)
Cliona aff. celata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Dendy (1922), Vacelet and Vasseur (1971), Thomas (1973, 1979a), Calcinai et al. (2000); CS: Cliona celata was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012). All faunistic accounts are unreliable unless including molecular data. This report is unlikely to be Cliona celata sensu stricto but was still counted as a clionaid different from others in the bioregion
Cliona ensifera	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide useful information. Assumed from Indo-Pacific	Vacelet et al. (1976)
Cliona johnstonii	(Carter, 1886)	Bass Strait	Ridley (1884, as Vioa schmidti), Topsent (1900, as Cliona schmidti), Vacelet et al. (1976, as Cliona schmidtii); CS: We tentatively listed all ‘Cliona schmidtii’ reported from the Indo-Pacific as Cliona johnstonii to imply that the two species are different. See van Soest et al. (2017) for comments on the distribution of Cliona schmidtii
Cliona jullieni	Topsent, 1891	La Réunion	Vacelet et al. (1976)
Cliona aff. lobata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: English Channel	Vacelet et al. (1976); CS: The Atlantic species Cliona lobata has been widely reported, but maybe not always accurately. These accounts have to be re-examined. The present record is possibly misidentified but is here counted as a morphologically different clionaid for the bioregion
(Unconf.: Cliona michelini)	Topsent, 1888	Indian Ocean, in shell of rock snail	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: This species may occur in the bioregion, but as the exact sample origin is unknown, it was not included here. Based on notes on a slide preparation, Cliona michelini was listed for India, however
Cliona mucronata	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Vacelet et al. (1976), Thomas (1979a), Calcinai et al. (2000)
Cliona aff. mucronata sensu Vacelet and Vasseur (1971)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Unknown, likely Indo-Pacific	Vacelet and Vasseur (1971); CS: Their figure of the short tylostyle is not typical for Cliona mucronata sensu stricto. As Cliona aff. mucronata and sensu stricto can both be found on the Great Barrier Reef (C. Schönberg unpubl. data 2010–2011), the species were here considered separately
(Cliona subulata)	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, but sympatric with Cliona ensifera and Cliona mucronata, thus assumed as Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: Cliona subulata has tylostyles and spirasters with long, discrete spines. Sollas’ drawings of the spicules suggest that the species belongs to the Cliona viridis complex, of which there are others in the area that cannot adequately be compared with Cliona subulata. Pending new results, we did not use this species in the biogeography to avoid possible duplication. Sollas’ type material needs to be re-examined
(Unconf.: Cliona thoosina)	Topsent, 1888	Unknown, in Tucetona shell (as Pedunculus), which does not provide helpful information. However, a tissue preparation of the type DT2538 at the Paris Museum was marked ‘Indian Ocean’ (C. Schönberg pers. obs. 2006–2007)	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: The species could possibly occur in this bioregion, but we were unable to confirm the exact type location and could not consider this species in our biogeographic analysis. Other records were from the Mediterranean (e.g. Pulitzer-Finali 1983, as Cliona cretensis, in calcareous rock; Rosell and Uriz 2002b, Ponti et al. 2011)
Cliothosa hancocki	(Topsent, 1888)	French Polynesia	Topsent (1888, also as Cliona quadrata, does not state exact sample site, in Tridacna sp.), Vacelet et al. (1976), Thomas (1979a), Pulitzer-Finali (1993); CS regards this name as a species complex that needs to be resolved per respective bioregion. It is here still counted as a species distinct from others occurring in this region
(Unconf.: Cliothosa quadrata)	(Hancock, 1849)	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, which occurs in the Indo-Pacific	CS: After accessing Topsent’s samples at the Paris Museum (2006–2007), CS regards Cliothosa hancocki as a species complex. Cliothosa hancocki and Cliothosa quadrata are very similar (e.g. Calcinai et al. 2005) but have not yet been formally compared. To avoid possible duplication only Cliothosa hancocki was counted for our biogeographic analysis (more commonly used name), despite records from the area under the name Cliothosa quadrata (see entries above)
Cornulella amirantensis	Van Soest et al., 1994	Seychelles	No other primary records found
Cornulella lundbecki	Dendy, 1922	Seychelles	Van Soest et al. (1994)
Cornulella minima	(Vacelet et al., 1976)	Madagascar	Van Soest et al. (1994)
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Referring to Hancock’s sample and thus not reporting a confirmed sample site: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: It is possible that Cornulella purpurea occurs in this bioregion, but as the sample site is unknown and cannot be conclusively matched to our bioregions, this species did not become part of our analysis
Cornulella tyro	Van Soest et al., 1994	Seychelles	No other primary records found
Diplastrella gardineri	Topsent, 1918	Maldives	Vacelet et al. (1976), Pulitzer-Finali (1993)
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Thomas (1979a, 1981), Calcinai et al. (2000); CS: Pione species are difficult to identify, but as the three species reported for this bioregion have different spicule dimensions, they were all counted
Pione margaritiferae	(Dendy, 1905)	Gulf of Mannar	? Vacelet and Vasseur (1971); CS: But no tylostyles were recovered, and the displayed microscleres represent a mix of Pione microrhabds and non-Pione spirasters); Thomas (1979a, 1981)
Pione aff. vastifica	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Thomas (1973, 1979a, 1981, as Pione vastifica), Calcinai et al. (2000, as Pione vastifica); CS: Pione vastifica was originally reported from the Atlantic, and this may be a different species, but it is here counted as a third Pione species different from the other two in this bioregion
Samus anonymus	Gray, 1867	Brazil	Thomas (1973)
Siphonodictyon minutum	(Thomas, 1972)	Sri Lanka	Thomas (1973, 1979a, 1981)
(Spheciospongia capensis)	(Carter, 1882)	Agulhas Bank	No other primary records found. CS: May not occur far enough north to be a coral reef sponge, was not counted for the biogeography
Spheciospongia excentrica	(Burton, 1931)	Natal	Vacelet et al. (1976, as Spirastrella), Schleyer et al. (2006)
Spheciospongia florida	(Von Lendenfeld, 1897)	Tanzania	Lévi (1965b), Barnes and Bell (2002), Díaz et al. (2007)
Spheciospongia globularis	(Dendy, 1922)	Chagos	Lévi (1961, as Spirastrella), Schleyer et al. (2006)
Spheciospongia inconstans	(Dendy, 1887)	Madras	Lévi (1961, as Spirastrella), Vacelet and Vasseur (1971, as Spirastrella), Thomas (1973, as Spirastrella), Vacelet et al. (1976, as Spirastrella), Thomas (1979a, 1981, as Spirastrella), Pulitzer-Finali (1993, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia poterionides	(Vacelet and Vasseur, 1971)	Madagascar	No other primary records found
Spheciospongia solida	(Ridley and Dendy, 1886)	Philippines	Barnes and Bell (2002, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia transitoria: reversed comb. to Spirastrella transitoria	Ridley, 1884	Seychelles	No other primary records found. CS: The original description places this species into the genus Spirastrella and clearly mentions the encrusting habit. The sponge has tylostyles and large, robust, conically spined spirasters and derivates. Based on these characters, the species is here returned to Spirastrella
Spheciospongia vagabunda	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	Dendy (1922 as Spirastrella, including the varieties tubulodigitata and gelatinosa, the former being accepted as Spheciospongia vagabunda—van Soest et al. 2017), Lévi (1965a, as Spirastrella), Thomas (1973), Pulitzer-Finali (1993), Barnes and Bell (2002, as Spirastrella), Schleyer et al. (2006)
Spirastrella cunctatrix	Schmidt, 1868	Algeria, Mediterranean	? Carter (1882, described either with purple colour or as ‘variety’ on a crab’s back), Vacelet and Vasseur (1971), Vacelet et al. (1976), Calcinai et al. (2000)
Spirastrella decumbens	Ridley, 1884	Torres Straits	Dendy (1922), Lévi (1956)
Spirastrella pachyspira	Lévi, 1958	E Red Sea, Saudi Arabia	Lévi (1961), Vacelet and Vasseur (1971), Vacelet et al. (1976), Thomas (1973), Barnes and Bell (2002)
Spirastrella punctulata	Ridley, 1884	Mozambique	No other primary records found
(Unconf.: Thoosa cactoides)	Hancock, 1849	In the pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: As we do not know the exact type location of this species, we did not count it for any specific bioregion
(Unconf.: Thoosa circumflexa)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Indian Ocean. According to van Soest et al. (2017), this is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, we did not include this species in our biogeographic analysis for the W Indian Ocean
Thoosa cf. fischeri	Topsent, 1891	Sri Lanka	? Thomas (1973, as Thoosa armata); CS: Thoosa armata is an Atlantic species, and unlike the material of Thomas (1973), it does not have tylostyles. Given the spicule complement and the sampling area, Thomas’ material is likely Thoosa fischeri. It differs from Thoosa radiata (below) and was counted
(Unconf.: Thoosa letellieri)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Indian Ocean. According to van Soest et al. (2017), this is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, we did not include this species in our biogeographic analysis for the W Indian Ocean
Thoosa radiata	Topsent, 1888	Unknown, in Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Thomas (1981)
Zyzzya fuliginosa	(Carter, 1879)	Torres Straits	Dendy (1922), Vacelet et al. (1976, as Paracornulum atoxa), Hooper and Krasochin (1989, as Zyzzya massalis), van Soest et al. (1994)
India, Maldives, Laccadives, British Ocean T erritory and Andaman Islands (47 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Alectona wallichii	(Carter, 1874)	Agulhas Bank, S of Africa (Carter: also from the ‘South Sea’ and Seychelles), first reported as spicules in sediment	? Namboothri and Fernando (2012, as Alectona sp.), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2012, 2015)
Amorphinopsis excavans	Carter, 1887	W Andaman Sea	Carter (1887), Annandale (1915a), Kumar (1925), Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989), Venkataraman et al. (2007), Pattanayak (2009); CS: Amorphinopsis excavans is seen as an Indo-Pacific species, but characters described in different accounts vary, and the species (complex?) needs to be revised (Carvalho et al. 2004). Pattanayak lists three forms or varieties. This material needs to be re-examined to see whether they all belong to the same species. It was still counted as a separate species for the bioregion
Aff. Cervicornia cuspidifera	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Caribbean Sea	Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989, as Spirastrella), Venkataraman et al. (2007 as Spirastrella); CS: Cervicornia cuspidifera is a Caribbean species. Other endopsammic clionaids exist in the Indo-Pacific, and this account needs to be re-examined. It was still counted as a different species in the bioregion
Cliona annulifera	Annandale, 1915a	Sri Lanka	Thomas (1979b, from shallow water), Pattanayak (2009)
Cliona aff. celata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Carter (1881, as Cliona warreni), Annandale (1915b, partly as Cliona warreni), Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989), Venkataraman et al. (2007), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2011), Namboothri and Fernando (2012), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2015); CS: Cliona celata was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012). All faunistic accounts are unreliable unless including molecular data. This report is unlikely to be Cliona celata sensu stricto but was still counted as a clionaid different from other species in the bioregion
Cliona ensifera	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Sollas (1878), Annandale (1915b), Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989), Calcinai et al. (2000), Pattanayak (2006), Immanuel et al. (2015), Raghunathan (2015), Kiruba-Sankar et al. (2016)
(Unconf.: Cliona insidiosa)	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found. CS: The sponge could possibly occur in this bioregion but was not observed since its description. As the exact type location is unknown, it was not included in the biogeographic analysis
Cliona johnstonii	(Carter, 1886)	Bass Strait	Calcinai et al. (2000, as Cliona schmidti); CS: We tentatively listed all ‘Cliona schmidtii’ reported from the Indo-Pacific as Cliona johnstonii to imply that the two species are different. See van Soest et al. (2017) for comments on the distribution of Cliona schmidtii
Cliona kempi	Annandale, 1915a	Andaman Islands	Thomas (1979b), Pattanayak (2006, 2009), Namboothri and Fernando (2012), Immanuel et al. (2015)
Cliona aff. lobata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: English Channel	Thomas (1979b), Pattanayak (2006), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2011), Namboothri and Fernando (2012), ? Sivaleela (2014), ? Kumar and Jogani (2014), ? Kumar and Shah (2014), Immanuel et al. (2015); CS: The Atlantic species Cliona lobata has been widely reported, but maybe not always accurately. These accounts have to be re-examined. The present record is possibly misidentified but is here counted as a morphologically different clionaid for the bioregion
Cliona michelini	Topsent, 1888	Indian Ocean, in shell of rock snail	Annandale (1915b); CS: The listing by Annandale is based on Topsent’s description. However, slide DX425 of Cliona michelini at the Paris Museum was marked ‘Bombay’ (C. Schönberg pers. obs. 2006–2007), suggesting that the species was found at least once in Indian waters
Cliona mucronata	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Annandale (1915a, b), Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989), Calcinai et al. (2000), Pattanayak (2006), Bhagirathan et al. (2008), Namboothri and Fernando (2012), Immanuel et al. (2015)
Cliona nodulosa	Calcinai et al., 2000	Maldives	No other primary records found
Cliona patera	(Hardwicke, 1820)	Singapore	Annandale (1915b)
(Cliona subulata)	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, but sympatric with Cliona ensifera and Cliona mucronata, thus assumed as Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: Cliona subulata has tylostyles and spirasters with long, discrete spines. Sollas’ drawings of the spicules suggest that the species belongs to the Cliona viridis complex, of which there are others in the area that cannot adequately be compared with Cliona subulata. Pending new results, we did not use this species in the biogeography to avoid possible duplication. Sollas’ type material needs to be re-examined
(Unconf.: Cliona thoosina)	Topsent, 1888	Unknown, in Tucetona shell (as Pedunculus), which does not provide helpful information. However, a tissue preparation of the type DT2538 at the Paris Museum was marked ‘Indian Ocean’ (C. Schönberg pers. obs. 2006–2007)	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: The species could possibly occur in this bioregion, but we were unable to confirm the exact type location and could not consider this species in our biogeographic analysis. Other records were from the Mediterranean (e.g. Pulitzer-Finali 1983, as Cliona cretensis, in calcareous rock; Rosell and Uriz 2002a; Ponti et al. 2011)
Cliona aff. viridis sp. 1 (aff. cuspidifera?) Cliona aff. viridis sp. 2 (aff. orientalis?)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Carter (1887, as Suberites coronarius), Dendy (1916, as Cliona coronaria), Annandale (1915b, as Cliona viridis and Cliona orientalis), Kumar (1925, as Cliona viridis), Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989, as Cliona viridis and Cliona orientalis), Calcinai et al. (2000, as Cliona orientalis and Spheciospongia varians?), Namboothri and Fernando (2012), Immanuel et al. (2015, as Cliona varians), Raghunathan (2015, as Cliona varians), Kiruba-Sankar et al. (2016, as Cliona varians); CS: The group is taxonomically difficult, and there are several species that may possibly occur (e.g. Cliona albimarginata, Cliona orientalis as common ones). As some of the authors listed two separate species in their publications, two species were counted, but local material will need to be investigated with molecular means
Cliothosa aurivillii	(Lindgren, 1897)	Java Sea	Thomas (1972, 1989, as Spirastrella), Venkataraman et al. (2007, as Spirastrella), Namboothri and Fernando (2012)
Cliothosa dichotoma	(Calcinai et al., 2000)	Maldives	Calcinai et al. (2000)
Cliothosa hancocki	(Topsent, 1888)	French Polynesia	Topsent (1888, as Cliona quadrata), Annandale (1915a, as Thoosa hancocci and Cliona quadrata, 1915b, as Thoosa), Thomas (1972, as Cliona quadrata, 1979b, as Thoosa), Pattanayak (2006, partly as Cliona quadrata), Sivaleela (2014, as Cliothosa quadrata), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2015), Immanuel et al. (2015, partly as Cliothosa quadrata); CS regards this name as a species complex that needs to be resolved per respective bioregion. It is here counted as one species distinct from the others occurring in this region
(Cliothosa quadrata)	(Hancock, 1849)	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	CS: After accessing Topsent’s samples at the Paris Museum (2006–2007), CS regards Cliothosa hancocki as a species complex. Cliothosa hancocki and Cliothosa quadrata are very similar (e.g. Calcinai et al. 2005) but have not yet been formally compared. To avoid possible duplication, only Cliothosa hancocki was counted for our biogeographic analysis, despite records from India under the name Cliothosa quadrata (see entries above)
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Referring to Hancock’s sample and thus not reporting a confirmed sample site: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: It is possible that Cornulella purpurea occurs in this bioregion, but as the sample site is unknown and cannot be conclusively matched to our bioregions, this species did not become part of our analysis.
(Delectona higgini)	(Carter, 1880)	Sri Lanka	Thomas (1972, 1979b); CS: But Thomas apparently referred to Carter’s account or sample, did not state a sampling depth either and reported coralline algae as substrate. The three other Delectona spp. occur in deep water. As this sponge may not occur in shallow water, it was not included in the biogeographic analysis related to warm-water corals
Dercitus (Stoeba) simplex	(Carter, 1880)	Sri Lanka	Sollas (1888a), ? Annandale (1915a, as Stoeba plicata), ? Calcinai et al. (2000 as Dercitus plicatus), van Soest et al. (2010), Immanuel et al. (2015); CS: Reports outside the Mediterranean are unlikely to be Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus (see e.g. van Soest et al. 2010). The species was tentatively included here as one species of Dercitus
(Dotona pulchella)	Carter, 1880	Sri Lanka	Thomas (1972, 1979b); CS: But Thomas’ account seems to rely on other people’s samples, which were largely from deep water (see below). The present record was not included into the warm-water analysis
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Carter (1887, as Cliona bacillifera), Topsent (1888, as Cliona), Annandale (1915a, b, as Cliona), Thomas (1979b, 1989, as Cliona), Calcinai et al. (2000), Immanuel et al. (2015), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2015); CS: This may not be Pione carpenteri, but it represents the local Pione species with straight, spindle-shaped microrhabds
(Unconf.: Pione fryeri)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown. Was found in window pane oyster, Placuna placenta, which occurs between the Gulf of Aden and the Philippines	No other primary records found. CS: This species could potentially occur in the bioregion, but as we do not know the exact sample site, we could not conclusively assign it to any one of our bioregions. Placuna placenta is commercially very important in the Philippines, and we tentatively assumed that the sample was from there and counted Pione fryeri only for the Coral Triangle
Pione indica: recommendation to reassess genus allocation	(Topsent, 1891)	Sri Lanka	Annandale (1915b, as Cliona), (Thomas 1979b, as Cliona); CS saw a slide of the type material in Paris (2006–2007). The species shares Pione and Cliona characters: Pro-Pione characters are that the tylostyles are always very straight and that the sponge contains acanthose microrhabds (spirasters?). Pro-Cliona characters are that the tylostyles are always robust, the tyles contain occasional vesicles, and there are no oxeas. This species may be close to the Cliona lobata group? The species was found in a pearl oyster shell and was thus assumed to be from shallow water
Pione margaritiferae	(Dendy, 1905)	Sri Lanka	Annandale (1915b, as Cliona), Thomas (1972, 1979b, as Cliona), Venkataraman et al. (2007 as Cliona), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2011, 2015); CS: This has been described from the bioregion and represents the local Pione with helical microrhabds
Pione aff. vastifica	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Annandale (1915b, c, as Cliona), Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989, as Cliona), Pattanayak (2006 as Cliona), Venkataraman et al. (2007 as Cliona), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2011), Namboothri and Fernando (2012), Immanuel et al. (2015), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2015)
Samus anonymus	Gray, 1867	Brazil	Carter (1880), Bhagirathan et al. (2008)
Siphonodictyon diagonoxeum	(Thomas, 1968a)	Sri Lanka	Thomas (1972, 1979b, as Aka), Pattanayak (2009, as Aka)
Siphonodictyon maldiviense	Calcinai et al., 2000	Maldives	Calcinai et al. (2007b)
Siphonodictyon minutum	(Thomas, 1972)	Sri Lanka	Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989, as Aka), Pattanayak (2009, as Aka), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2015)
Siphonodictyon mucosum	Bergquist, 1965	Palau	Namboothri and Fernando (2012, as Aka)
(Siphonodictyon laccadiviense) taxon inquirendum	(Thomas, 1989)	Laccadives	No other primary records found. CS: This name has been synonymised with Zyzzya fuliginosa (van Soest et al. 2017), but it is here assumed that Thomas really meant a Siphonodictyon species. However, we were unable to find a formal description or to locate any type material (which is supposed to exist at the Calcutta Museum, P. Thomas pers. comm. 2012). At this stage we cannot adequately avoid possible species duplication and ignored this name
Spheciospongia florida	(Von Lendenfeld, 1897)	Zanzibar	Kumar (1925, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia globularis	(Dendy, 1922)	Chagos	Dendy (1922, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia inconstans	(Dendy, 1887)	Madras	Dendy (1887, as Suberites, 1922), Thomas (1972, 1979b, 1989, as Spirastrella), Calcinai et al. (2000), Pattanayak (2006), Venkataraman et al. (2007, as Spirastrella), Sivaleela (2014), Immanuel et al. (2015)
Spheciospongia tentorioides	(Dendy, 1905)	Sri Lanka	No other primary records found
Spheciospongia vagabunda	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	Carter (1887, as Spirastrella trincomaliensis), Dendy (1905, as Spirastrella), Dendy (1916, as Spirastrella vagabunda var. tubulodigitata), Dendy (1922, as Spirastrella and the varieties tubulodigitata and gelatinosa), Immanuel et al. (2015), Raghunathan (2015), Kiruba-Sankar et al. (2016, as Spirastrella)
Spirastrella andamanensis	Pattanayak, 2006	Andaman Islands	Pattanayak (2009), Immanuel et al. (2015)
(Spirastrella aff. coccinea)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Caribbean	Thomas (1989), Venkataraman et al. (2007); CS: See comments for Spirastrella aff. cunctatrix
Spirastrella aff. cunctatrix (sabogae?)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Algeria, Mediterranean	Carter (1887), Immanuel et al. (2015), Raghunathan (2015), Kiruba-Sankar et al. (2016); CS: Related records require confirmation. See Boury-Esnault et al. (1999) for the distribution of similar Spirastrella spp. Spirastrella coccinea and Spirastrella cunctatrix are morphologically very similar. To avoid possible duplication, we excluded one of the locally unexpected species from our analyses. We assumed that the more likely species to occur might be Spirastrella cunctatrix, possibly introduced to the Indo-Pacific via the Suez Canal. Alternatively, this could be Spirastrella sabogae
Timea curvistellifera: genus transfer to Spirastrella curvistellifera new comb.	(Dendy, 1905)	Sri Lanka	No other primary records found. CS: Timea curvistellifera is transferred into Spirastrella, because according to the original description, it is a thinly encrusting sponge that has no asters as typical for Timea but an ectosomal crust of spirasters with robust, conical spines either terminally arranged or following the convex sides of the axis, which is congruent with Spirastrella
Spirastrella pachyspira	Lévi, 1958	E Red Sea, Saudi Arabia	Thomas (1968), ? Kumar and Jogani (2014), ? Kumar and Shah (2014)
Spirastrella punctulata	Ridley, 1884	Mozambique	Kumar (1925)
Spiroxya acustella	(Annandale, 1915b)	Bay of Bengal	Thomas (1979b, as Donotella), Pattanayak (2009, as Cliona); CS: Reported from shallow water
Spiroxya levispira	(Topsent, 1898)	Acores	Calcinai et al. (2000); CS: Reported from shallow water
Thoosa armata	Topsent, 1888	Gulf of Guinea	Annandale (1915b), Thomas (1979b, 1989), Sunil Kumar and Thomas (2015)
Thoosa bulbosa	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	Topsent (1888), Namboothri and Fernando (2012)
(Unconf.: Thoosa cactoides)	Hancock, 1849	In the pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: As we do not know the exact type location of this species, we did not count it for any specific bioregion
(Unconf.: Thoosa circumflexa)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Indian Ocean. According to van Soest et al. (2017), this is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, we did not include this species in our biogeographic analysis for Indian sites
Thoosa fischeri	Topsent, 1891	Sri Lanka	Thomas (1979b)
Thoosa laeviaster	Annandale, 1915b	Myanmar	Thomas (1979b, as Annandalea)
(Unconf.: Thoosa letellieri)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Indian Ocean. According to van Soest et al. (2017), this is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, we did not include this species in our biogeographic analysis for Indian sites
(Unconf.: Thoosa radiata)	Topsent, 1888	Unknown, in Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: This Indo-Pacific sponge might occur in the Indian Ocean. However, as we cannot confirm the exact type location, we did not include this species in our biogeographic analysis for Indian sites
Thoosa socialis	Carter, 1880	Gulf of Mannar	Cater (1881), Thomas (1972, 1979b, as Thooce)
Zyzzya fuliginosa	(Carter, 1879)	Torres Straits	Dendy (1922, as Lissodendoryx massalis), Thomas (1981, 1989, partly as Damirina laccadiviensis), van Soest et al. (1994), Calcinai et al. (2000)
Zyzzya papillata	(Thomas, 1968a)	Sri Lanka	Van Soest et al. (1994)
NW Australia, Cocos and Christmas Islands (3 5 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Cliona caesia	(Schönberg, 2000)	Central Great Barrier Reef	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2012, Ningaloo)
Cliona aff. celata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Hentschel (1909), Schönberg and Fromont (2012), Fromont and Sampey (2014); CS: Cliona celata was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012). All faunistic accounts are unreliable unless including molecular data. This report is unlikely to be Cliona celata sensu stricto but was still counted as a clionaid different from others in the bioregion
Cliona dissimilis	Ridley and Dendy, 1886	Arafura Sea	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994), Fromont and Sampey (2014)
Cliona ensifera	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2012, Ningaloo)
(Unconf.: Cliona insidiosa)	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found. CS: The sponge could possibly occur in this bioregion but was not noted since its description. As the exact type location is unknown, it was not included in the biogeographic analysis
Unconf.: Cliona johannae	Topsent, 1932	W Australia. But reported from the red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, which occurs in the E Pacific, Oregon to Baja California	No other primary records found. CS: This species has been published as being from Western Australia (sometimes: Shark Bay). However, in that case, the host material must have been misidentified, as it has an E Pacific distribution. We presently rely on the published statement for the type location. W Australian abalone spp. do not extend into Shark Bay, and it may even be a sample from further south than always assumed
(Unconf.: Cliona michelini)	Topsent, 1888	Indian Ocean, in shell of rock snail	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: This species may occur in the bioregion, but as the exact sample origin is unknown, it was not included here. Based on notes on a slide preparation, Cliona michelini was listed for India, however
Cliona minuscula	Schönberg et al., 2006	Central Great Barrier Reef	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2012, Ningaloo)
Cliona mucronata	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2012, Ningaloo)
Cliona orientalis	Thiele, 1900	Molucca Sea, Indonesia	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2012, Kimberley, Ningaloo); ? Schönberg and Fromont (2012), Fromont and Sampey (2014)
(Cliona subulata)	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, but sympatric with Cliona ensifera and Cliona mucronata, thus assumed as Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: Cliona subulata has tylostyles and spirasters with long, discrete spines. Sollas’ drawings of the spicules suggest that the species belongs to the Cliona viridis complex, of which there are others in the area that cannot adequately be compared with Cliona subulata. Pending new results, we did not use this species in the biogeography to avoid possible duplication. Sollas’ type material needs to be re-examined
(Unconf.: Cliona thoosina)	Topsent, 1888	Unknown, in Tucetona shell (as Pedunculus), which is not helpful information. A tissue preparation of the type DT2538 at the Paris Museum was marked ‘Indian Ocean’ (C. Schönberg pers. obs. 2006)	No other primary records found for this bioregion. CS: The species could possibly occur in this bioregion, but we were unable to confirm the exact type location and could not consider this species in our biogeographic analysis. Other records were from the Mediterranean (e.g. Pulitzer-Finali 1993, as Cliona cretensis, in calcareous rock; Rosell and Uriz 2002b; Ponti et al. 2011)
Cliona cf. tinctoria	Schönberg, 2000	Central Great Barrier Reef	Schönberg and Fromont (2012), Fromont and Sampey (2014)
Cliona vermifera	Hancock, 1867	Unknown. In Chama sp., information which does not provide further clues	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2012, Ningaloo); CS: Cliona vermifera is thought to be a species complex (see e.g. León-Pech et al. 2015), but pending new results is here treated as a single species
(Cliona spp. undetermined)	Not formally described	Reported from NW Australia	Fromont and Sampey (2014, as Cliona sp. 8, sp. 17, sp. K1, sp. NW1); CS: Apart from Cliona celata, Cliona dissimilis, Cliona orientalis and Cliona tinctoria, the authors reported four other Cliona spp. as OTUs. As we cannot presently match these against the other listed Cliona spp., we did not count them for the biogeographic analysis
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Referring to Hancock’s sample and thus not reporting a confirmed sample site: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: It is possible that Cornulella purpurea occurs in this bioregion, but as the sample site is unknown and cannot be conclusively matched to our bioregions, this species did not become part of our analysis
Dercitus (Stoeba) occultus	Hentschel, 1909	Shark Bay	Van Soest et al. (2010)
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Hentschel (1909, as Cliona carpenteri var. gracilis), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Cliona); CS: The genus Pione is taxonomically difficult. However, as Hentschel distinguished four Pione spp. in the same publication, we accept that they were different from each other
(Unconf.: Pione fryeri)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown. Was found in window pane oyster, Placuna placenta, which occurs between the Gulf of Aden and the Philippines	No other primary records found. CS: This species could potentially occur in the bioregion, but as we do not know the exact sample site, we could not conclusively assign it to any one of our bioregions. Placuna placenta is commercially very important in the Philippines, and we tentatively assumed that the sample was from there and counted Pione fryeri only for the Coral Triangle
Pione aff. lampa	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Bermuda	Fromont and Sampey (2014, as Pione lampa); CS: This record needs to be revisited; Pione lampa has not yet been recorded from anywhere apart from the Caribbean. As another species known to grow in encrusting morphology—Pione velans—was listed in the same publication, this one was accepted as different and different from the papillate Pione spp. listed by Hentschel (1909)
Pione margaritiferae	(Dendy, 1905)	Gulf of Mannar	Hentschel (1909, as Cliona), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Cliona)
Pione aff. vastifica	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Hentschel (1909, as Cliona vastifica)
Pione velans	(Hentschel, 1909)	Shark Bay	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Cliona), Fromont et al. (2005), Fromont and Sampey (2014)
(Pione spp. undetermined)	Not formally described	Reported from NW Australia	Fromont and Sampey (2014, as Pione sp. 2781, sp. 2782); CS: Apart from Pione lampa and Pione velans, the authors reported two other Pione spp. as OTUs. As we cannot presently match these against the other listed Pione spp., we did not count them for the biogeographic analysis
Siphonodictyon minutum	(Thomas, 1972)	Sri Lanka	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2012, Ningaloo)
Siphonodictyon mucosum	Bergquist, 1965	Palau	Fromont and Sampey (2014)
Siphonodictyon paratypicum	(Fromont, 1993)	Central Great Barrier Reef	Fromont and Sampey (2014); CS: This species is similar to Siphonodictyon maldiviense, and this record needs reassessment. However, it represents a different species from the other ones in the bioregion and was counted
7 Siphonodictyon spp. undetermined	Not formally described	Reported from NW Australia	Schönberg and Fromont (2012, as 10 Siphonodictyon spp.), Fromont and Sampey (2014, as 6 Siphonodictyon spp.); CS: We counted seven of these species in addition to the identified species, because without reassessing the material, we could not rule out species duplication
Spheciospongia digitata	(Hentschel, 1909)	Shark Bay	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia papillosa	(Ridley and Dendy, 1886)	Sydney Harbour, Australia	Schönberg and Fromont (2012, as ‘cf.’), Fromont and Sampey (2014); CS: This species is better known from colder water (e.g. Dendy 1897), but according to the authors, it occurred on northwestern Australian reefs and was counted for the NW Australian biogeography
Spheciospongia purpurea	(De Lamarck, 1815)	Bass Strait	Carter (1882, as Alcyonium purpureum), Topsent (1933, as Spirastrella), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella); CS: The sponge is best known from southwestern Australia, but it has been sampled as far north as the Abrolhos Islands and was counted (C. Schönberg pers. obs. 2015, accessing samples of the Western Australian Museum)
Spheciospongia tentorioides	(Dendy, 1905)	Sri Lanka	Hentschel (1909, as Spirastrella tentorioides var. australis), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia vagabunda	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	Dendy and Frederick (1924, as Spirastrella), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella), Schönberg and Fromont (2012, as ‘cf.’), Fromont and Sampey (2014)
(Spheciospongia spp. undetermined)	Not formally described	Reported from NW Australia	Schönberg and Fromont (2012), Fromont and Sampey (2014); CS: Not fully identified Spheciospongia spp. could not be adequately be compared to other Spheciospongia spp. in our data table. We did not count them for the biogeographic analysis
(Spirastrella sp. undetermined)	Not formally described	Reported from the Kimberley	Fromont and Sampey (2014, as Spirastrella WA1); CS: As this species could not adequately be compared with the record of Spirastrella decumbens, it was here ignored to avoid duplication
Spirastrella decumbens	Ridley, 1884	Torres Straits	Kirkpatrick (1900b), ? Hentschel (1909, as Spirastrella cunctatrix), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994)
(Unconf.: Thoosa cactoides)	Hancock, 1849	In the pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: As we do not know the exact type location of this species, we did not count it for any specific bioregion
(Unconf.: Thoosa circumflexa)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: This Indo-Pacific sponge might occur in the Indian Ocean. According to van Soest et al. (2017), this is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. Without the exact type location, we did not include this species in our biogeographic analysis for the NW Australia
(Unconf.: Thoosa letellieri)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: This Indo-Pacific sponge might occur in the Indian Ocean. Taxon inquirendum (van Soest et al. 2017), but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. Without the exact type location, we did not use this species here
(Unconf.: Thoosa radiata)	Topsent, 1888	Unknown, in Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Indian Ocean. However, as we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, we did not include this species here
Zyzzya cf. criceta	Schönberg, 2000	Central GBR	Fromont and Sampey (2014)
Zyzzya fuliginosa	(Carter, 1879)	Torres Straits	Hooper and Krasochin (1989, as Zyzzya massalis), Schönberg and Fromont (2012 as ‘aff.’), Fromont and Sampey (2014, as ‘cf.’), van Soest et al. (1994)
Zyzzya sp. undetermined	Not formally described	From Carnarvon Shelf	Schönberg and Fromont (2012, as Zyzzya sp. 1)
Coral Sea, including Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Arafura Sea, Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia (3 3 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Aff. Cervicornia sp.	Not formally described	Observed on the central and southern GBR	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2010–2014, endopsammic, zooxanthellate, with tylostyles and spirasters, agglutinating and incorporating particles); CS: This is at least one species, different from the other ones here listed
Cliona caesia	(Schönberg, 2000)	Central GBR	Schönberg (2000, 2001a, as Pione), Schönberg et al. (2006), Hill et al. (2011), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2014, southern GBR)
Cliona aff. celata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	? Kelly-Borges and Vacelet (1998, as Cliona sp.), Schönberg (2000, 2001a), Schönberg et al. (2006), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2014, southern GBR); CS: Cliona celata was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012). All faunistic accounts are unreliable unless including molecular data. This report is unlikely Cliona celata sensu stricto but was still counted as a clionaid different from others. It may represent more than one species; some samples had raphides as well as tylostyles. Bioerosion traces differed with sample
Cliona dissimilis	Ridley and Dendy, 1886	Arafura Sea	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994)
Cliona ensifera	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Schönberg et al. (2006), Pica et al. (2012, depth unknown), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2010–2014, central and southern GBR)
(Unconf.: Cliona insidiosa)	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found. CS: The sponge could possibly occur in this bioregion but was not noted since its description. As the exact type location is unknown, it was not included in the biogeographic analysis
Cliona johnstonii	(Carter, 1886)	Bass Strait	Schönberg et al. (2006, as Cliona cf. schmidti); CS: We tentatively listed all ‘Cliona schmidtii’ reported from the Indo-Pacific as Cliona johnstonii to imply that the two species are different. See van Soest et al. (2017) for comments on the distribution of Cliona schmidtii
Cliona cf. jullieni	Topsent, 1891	La Réunion	Kelly-Borges and Vacelet (1998), Hill et al. (2011), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2010–2011, central GBR)
Cliona minuscula	Schönberg et al., 2006	Central GBR	Schönberg et al. (2006), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2014, southern GBR)
Cliona mucronata	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Schönberg et al. (2006), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2010–2014, central and southern GBR)
Cliona aff. mucronata sensu Vacelet and Vasseur (1971)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Unknown, likely Indo-Pacific	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2011, central GBR)
Cliona orientalis	Thiele, 1900	Molucca Sea, Indonesia	Vacelet (1981), Kelly-Borges and Vacelet (1998), Schönberg (2000, 2001), Schönberg et al. (2006), Hill et al. (2011), Ramsby et al. (2017)
Cliona tinctoria	Schönberg, 2000	Central GBR	? Carter (1882, as purple-coloured Spirastrella cunctatrix, for ‘Australia’), ? Pulitzer-Finali (1982, as Cliona carteri from Heron Island; CS observed Cliona tinctoria at Heron Island 2002–2004, a similar, but more likely species), Schönberg (2000), Schönberg et al. (2006)
Cliona vermifera	Hancock, 1867	Unknown. In Chama sp., information which does not provide further clues	Schönberg (2001a, as Bernatia), Schönberg et al. (2006), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2010–2014, central and southern GBR); CS: Cliona vermifera is thought to be a species complex (see e.g. León-Pech et al. 2015), but pending new results is here treated as a single species
Cliothosa aurivillii	(Lindgren, 1897)	Java Sea	Burton (1934, as Spirastrella), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella), Schönberg and Wisshak (2012)
Cliothosa hancocki	(Topsent, 1888)	French Polynesia	Risk et al. (1995), Schönberg (2000, 2001a), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2014, southern GBR); CS regards this name as a species complex that needs to be resolved per respective bioregion. It is here still counted as a species distinct from the others occurring in this region
(Unconf.: Cliothosa quadrata)	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas occurs in the Indo-Pacific	No record found for this bioregion. CS: After accessing Topsent’s samples at the Paris Museum (2006–2007), CS regards Cliothosa hancocki as a species complex. Cliothosa hancocki and Cliothosa quadrata are very similar (e.g. Calcinai et al. 2005). To avoid possible duplication, only Cliothosa hancocki was counted for our biogeographic analysis (more commonly used name)
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Referring to Hancock’s sample and thus not reporting a confirmed sample site: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: Cornulella purpurea might occur in the bioregion, but as the sample site is unknown and cannot be conclusively matched to our bioregions, this species did not become part of our analysis
Cornulum virguliferum	(Lévi and Lévi, 1983)	New Caledonia	Van Soest et al. (1994)
Pione aff. vastifica	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Schönberg (2001); CS: Unlikely to be Pione vastifica sensu stricto, but counted as the only Pione species recorded in the bioregion
Neamphius huxleyi	(Sollas, 1888)	Vanuatu	Díaz et al. (2007)
(Unconf.: Siphonodictyon labyrinthicum)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown type location, but found in the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, which occurs in the Indo-Pacific	Pica et al. (2012, as Aka, likely New Caledonia, in Distichopora sp., but depth unknown); CS: Presently not counted
Siphonodictyon minutum	(Thomas, 1972)	Sri Lanka	Schönberg et al. (2006)
Siphonodictyon mucosum	Bergquist, 1965	Micronesia	Kelly (1986), Kelly-Borges and Bergquist (1988), Fromont (1993, as Aka), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Aka), Schönberg (2000, 2001, as Aka), Schönberg and Wisshak (2012, as Aka)
Siphonodictyon paratypicum	(Fromont, 1993)	Central GBR	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Aka), Schönberg and Tapanila (2006, as Aka)
Siphonodictyon sp. yellow	Not formally described	Central GBR	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2011, endopsammic, may or may not be conspecific with the species observed at the Marianas; see Kelly et al. 2003); CS: This record is different from the species known from the bioregion and was counted for the biogeography analysis
Spheciospongia congenera	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia inconstans	(Dendy, 1887)	Madras	Burton (1934, as Spirastrella), Vacelet (1981, as Spirastrella), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella), Kelly-Borges and Vacelet (1998)
Spheciospongia lacunosa	(Kieschnick, 1898)	Torres Straits	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella)
(Spheciospongia purpurea)	(De Lamarck, 1815)	Bass Strait	? Hentschel (1912); CS: Hentschel approached this species using a wide scope. It may not be Spheciospongia purpurea and likely represents more than one species. As we could not rule out duplication, we did not count it
Spheciospongia ramulosa	(Von Lendenfeld, 1888)	Sydney Harbour	No other primary records found
Spheciospongia semilunaris	(Lindgren, 1897)	Java Sea	Burton (1934, as Spirastrella), Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia spiculifera	(Kieschnick, 1898)	Torres Straits	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia vagabunda	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	Bergquist and Tizard (1967, as Spirastrella), Kelly (1986, partly as Spheciospongia fungoides or Spheciospongia gallensis or Spheciospongia trincomaliensis), Kelly-Borges and Bergquist (1988), Kelly-Borges and Vacelet (1998), Sutcliffe et al. (2010)
Spirastrella decumbens	Ridley, 1884	Torres Straits	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994)
(Unconf.: Thoosa cactoides)	Hancock, 1849	In the pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Coral Sea. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Hancock’s sample, however, we did not use it for this bioregion
(Unconf.: Thoosa circumflexa)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Coral Sea. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, however, we did not use it for this bioregion
(Unconf.: Thoosa letellieri)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Coral Sea. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, however, we did not use it for this bioregion
(Unconf.: Thoosa radiata)	Topsent, 1888	Unknown, in Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Coral Sea. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, however, we did not use it for this bioregion
Thoosa sp.	Not yet formally described	Reported from the central GBR (C. Schönberg pers. obs. 2012)	No other primary records found. CS: At this stage, the material has only been identified to genus
Zyzzya criceta	Schönberg, 2000	Central Great Barrier Reef	Schönberg (2000, 2001a), ? Harper (2014, as Zyzzya fuliginosa), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2014, on the southern GBR)
Zyzzya fuliginosa	(Carter, 1879)	Torres Straits	Van Soest et al. (1994)
Coral Triangle, including Indonesia, South China Sea, Taiwan, Gulf of Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines and Palau (4 3 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Amorphinopsis excavans	Carter, 1887	W Andaman Sea	Hooper et al. (2000), Azzini et al. (2007b), Lim et al. (2009, 2016); CS: Amorphinopsis excavans is seen as an Indo-Pacific species, but characters described in older accounts vary, and the species (complex?) needs to be re-examined and revised (Carvalho et al. 2004)
Aff. Cervicornia cuspidifera	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Caribbean Sea	Hooper et al. (2000), Putchakarn (2007); CS: Cervicornia cuspidifera is a Caribbean species. Other endopsammic clionaids exist in the Indo-Pacific, and this account needs to be re-examined. It was still counted as different
Cliona albimarginata	Calcinai et al., 2005	N Sulawesi	? Hooper et al. (2000, as Cliona cf. caroboea), Calcinai et al. (2005), Putchakarn (2007), Lim et al. (2016); CS: Cliona albimarginata and Cliona orientalis have both been recorded from this bioregion and are very similar
Cliona aff. celata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Dawydoff (1952), ? van Soest (1990, as Cliona sp. orange), Hooper et al. (2000, as Cliona cf. celata), Calcinai et al. (2006), Azzini et al. (2007b), Chervyakova (2007), Lim et al. (2009, 2012, 2016); CS: Cliona celata was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012a). All faunistic accounts are unreliable unless including molecular data. This report is unlikely to be Cliona celata sensu stricto but was still counted as a clionaid different from others in the bioregion
(Cliona dissimilis)	Ridley and Dendy, 1886	Arafura Sea	? Lim et al. (2012a, as Cliona sp. ‘orange encrusting’); CS: This is not a confirmed record. To avoid possible duplication, we did not count it
Cliona ensifera	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Hooper et al. (2000)
Cliona favus	Calcinai et al., 2005	N Sulawesi	No other primary records found
(Unconf.: Cliona insidiosa)	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found. CS: The sponge could possibly occur in this bioregion but was not noted since its description. As the exact type location is unknown, it was not included in the biogeographic analysis
Cliona johnstonii	(Carter, 1886)	Bass Strait	De Laubenfels (1954), Hooper et al. (2000, as Cliona cf. schmidtii); CS: We tentatively listed all ‘Cliona schmidtii’ reported from the Indo-Pacific as Cliona johnstonii to imply that the two species are different. See van Soest et al. (2017) for comments on the distribution of Cliona schmidtii
Cliona kempi	Annandale, 1915a	Andaman Islands	Hooper et al. (2000)
Cliona liangae	Calcinai et al., 2005	N Sulawesi	No other primary records found
Cliona aff. lobata	Hancock, 1849	English Channel	Hooper et al. (2000); CS: The Atlantic species Cliona lobata has been widely reported but maybe not always accurately. These accounts have to be re-examined. The present record is possibly misidentified but is here counted as a morphologically different clionaid for the bioregion
Cliona mucronata	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Dawydoff (1952), Desqueyroux-Faúndez (1981), Hooper et al. (2000), Calcinai et al. (2005), Lim et al. (2016)
Cliona orientalis	Thiele, 1900	Molucca Sea, Indonesia	Hooper et al. (2000), Calcinai et al. (2006), Azzini et al. (2007b), Lim et al. (2012a), Lim et al. (2016); CS: Cliona albimarginata and Cliona orientalis have both been recorded from this bioregion and are very similar
Cliona patera	(Hardwicke, 1820)	Singapore	Schlegel (1857, as Spongia (Poterion) neptuni), Dawydoff (1952, as Poterion), Hooper et al. (2000, as Poterion neptuni), Lim et al. (2009, 2012a, 2012b), Low (2012), Lim et al. (2016)
Cliona utricularis	(Calcinai et al., 2005)	N Sulawesi	Lim et al. (2012a, 2016)
(Cliona aff. viridis)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Hooper et al. (2000, as Cliona cf. viridis); CS: Cliona viridis complex species are taxonomically difficult. This account is a tentative identification and would have incurred the risk of duplication. We did not count it
Cliothosa aurivillii	(Lindgren, 1897)	Java Sea	Dawydoff (1952, as Spirastrella), Bergquist (1965), Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella), ? Calcinai et al. (2006, as Cliona), ? Azzini et al. (2007b, as Cliona), Putchakarn (2011), Lim et al. (2016, listed as Cliona and Cliothosa), J. Marlow pers. comm. (2015, Celebes Sea); CS: The tylostyles in Calcinai et al. (2006) very much resemble those of Spheciospongia peleia. Azzini et al. (2007b) followed Calcinai et al.’s decision
Cliothosa dichotoma	(Calcinai et al., 2000)	Maldives	Calcinai et al. (2005)
Cliothosa hancocki	(Topsent, 1888)	French Polynesia	Lindgren (1898, as Thoosa), Dawydoff (1952, as Thoosa), Hooper et al. (2000, as Thoosa (Cliothosa) hancocki and Cliona quadrata), Calcinai et al. (2006), Azzini et al. (2007b), Chervyakova (2007, as Thoosa), Lim et al. (2016), J. Marlow pers. comm. (2016, Celebes Sea); CS regards this name as a species complex that needs to be resolved per respective bioregion. It is here still counted as a species distinct from the others occurring in this region
(Cliothosa quadrata)	(Hancock, 1849)	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	CS: After accessing Topsent’s samples at the Paris Museum (2006–2007), CS regards Cliothosa hancocki as a species complex. Cliothosa hancocki and Cliothosa quadrata are very similar (e.g. Calcinai et al. 2005). To avoid possible duplication, only Cliothosa hancocki was counted (more commonly used name), even though Cliothosa quadrata was also recorded (see above)
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Referring to Hancock’s sample and thus not reporting a confirmed sample site: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: It is possible that Cornulella purpurea occurs in this bioregion, but as the sample site is unknown and cannot be conclusively matched to our bioregions, this species did not become part of our analysis
(Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus)	(Schmidt, 1868)	Algeria, Mediterranean	Sollas (1902, as Dercitus plicata), Hooper et al. (2000, as Dercitus plicatus); CS: Doubtful record. Was not counted for the biogeographic analysis
Dercitus (Stoeba) simplex	(Carter, 1880)	Gulf of Mannar	Thiele (1900), Hooper et al. (2000)
(Diplastrella spiniglobata): recommendation to reassess genus allocation	(Carter, 1879)	‘South Sea’	Hooper et al. (2000); CS: The spicules depicted by Carter suggest that it is not a bioeroding sponge but it may be closer to a Placospongia. The species needs to be reassessed and was not counted
Holoxea excavans	Calcinai et al., 2001	Taiwan	Lim et al. (2016)
Neamphius huxleyi	(Sollas, 1888)	Vanuatu	Díaz et al. (2007), Lim et al. (2016)
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Hooper et al. (2000, as Cliona and partly as Cliona bacillifera), Calcinai et al. (2006), Azzini et al. (2007b)
Unconf.: Pione fryeri	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown. Was found in window pane oyster, Placuna placenta, which occurs between the Gulf of Aden and the Philippines	No other primary records found. CS: This species might occur in the bioregion, but as we do not know the exact sample site, we could not assign it to any one of our bioregions. Placuna placenta is commercially very important in the Philippines, and we tentatively assumed that the sample was from there and counted Pione fryeri only for the Coral Triangle
(Pione aff. vastifica)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Hooper et al. (2000, as Cliona); CS: This record could not adequately be verified and was not used for the biogeographic analysis
Samus anonymus	Gray, 1867	Brazil	Sollas (1902), de Laubenfels (1954), Hooper et al. (2000)
Siphonodictyon maldiviense	Calcinai et al., 2000	Maldives	Calcinai et al. (2007b), ? Putchakarn (2007, as Aka sp.), Lim et al. (2012a, 2016, as Aka)
Siphonodictyon microterebrans	Calcinai et al., 2007b	N Sulawesi	No other primary records found
Siphonodictyon mucosum	Bergquist, 1965	Palau	Rützler (1971), Cerrano et al. (2002, as Aka), Hooper et al. (2000, as Aka), Calcinai et al. (2005, 2006, as Aka), Azzini et al. (2007b, as Aka), Putchakarn (2007, as Aka), de Voogd and Cleary (2009, as Aka), Lim et al. (2012a, as Aka), Becking et al. (2013), Lim et al. (2016)
(Siphonodictyon sp. undetermined)	Not formally described	Reported from Singapore	Lim et al. (2012a, as Siphonodictyon sp. ‘white fistules soft’); CS: Conservatively, we treat this as a doubtful record and did not count it
(Siphonodictyon sp. undetermined)	Not formally described	Reported from Vietnam	Chervyakova (2007, as Aka sp. – ‘yellow soft sponge’); CS: Possibly doubtful genus allocation? Conservatively not counted
Spheciospongia areolata	(Dendy, 1897)	Port Phillip Bay, South Australia	Dawydoff (1952, as Spirastrella), Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella), Lim et al. (2016)
Spheciospongia carnosa	(Topsent, 1897)	Ambon, Banda Sea	Desqueyroux-Faúndez (1981, as Spirastrella), Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia congenera	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	Putchakarn (2011)
Spheciospongia inconstans	(Dendy, 1887)	Madras	Thiele (1899, as Spirastrella); Sollas (1902, as Spirastrella); Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella); Lévi (1959b, as Spirastrella); Chervyakova (2007), Lim et al. (2016)
Spheciospongia lacunosa	(Kieschnick, 1898)	Ternate	Kieschnick (1900, as Spirastrella), Dragnewitsch (1906, as Spirastrella), Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella), Lim et al. (2016)
Spheciospongia peleia	(De Laubenfels, 1954)	Palau	? Calcinai et al. (2006, as Cliona aurivillii), ? Azzini et al. (2007b, as Cliona aurivillii), Becking et al. (2013)
Spheciospongia purpurea	(De Lamarck, 1815)	Bass Strait	Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella, including the taxon inquirendum Spirastrella purpurea glaebosa), Lim et al. (2016); CS: The sponge is best known from southwestern Australia, but it has been sampled as far north as the Abrolhos Islands and was tentatively counted (C. Schönberg pers. obs. 2015, accessing samples of the Western Australian Museum)
Spheciospongia semilunaris	(Lindgren, 1897)	Java Sea	Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia solida	(Ridley and Dendy, 1886)	Philippines	Topsent (1897, as Spirastrella), Lindgren (1898, as Spirastrella), Desqueyroux-Faúndez (1981, as Spirastrella), van Soest (1989, 1990, as Spirastrella), Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella), Cerrano et al. (2002, as Spirastrella), Calcinai et al. (2006, as Spirastrella), Azzini et al. (2007b), Putchakarn (2007, 2011, as Spirastrella), Pica et al. (2012, as Spheciospongia cf. solida, enveloping and eroding basal parts of Stylaster sp.), Becking et al. (2013), Lim et al. (2016)
Spheciospongia spiculifera	(Kieschnick, 1898)	Ambon	Kieschnick (1900, as Spirastrella), Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella spiculifer)
Spheciospongia tentorioides	(Dendy, 1905)	Sri Lanka	Calcinai et al. (2006, as Spirastrella), Azzini et al. (2007b), ? Li (2013, as Spheciospongia sp.), Lim et al. (2016)
Spheciospongia vagabunda	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	Kieschnick (1896, as Spirastrella cylindrica), Thiele (1900, as Spirastrella cylindrica), Wilson (1925, as Spirastrella), de Laubenfels (1935, as Spirastrella), Bergquist (1965, as Spirastrella), van Soest (1989, 1990, as Spirastrella), Hooper et al. (2000, as Spirastrella, also as ‘cf.’ and Suberites trincomaliensis), Longakit et al. (2005), Chervyakova (2007), de Voogd and Cleary (2009), Lim et al. (2012a, as Spheciospongia cf. vagabunda), Becking et al. (2013), Hadi et al. (2016), Lim et al. (2016)
(Spirastrella aff. coccinea)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Caribbean	Hooper et al. (2000); CS: See comments for Spirastrella aff. cunctatrix
Spirastrella aff. cunctatrix (sabogae?)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Algeria, Mediterranean	Desqueyroux-Faúndez (1981), Hooper et al. (2000), Azzini et al. (2007b); CS: This record requires confirmation. See Boury-Esnault et al. (1999) about the distribution of similar Spirastrella spp. Spirastrella coccinea and Spirastrella cunctatrix are morphologically very similar. To avoid possible duplication, we excluded one of the locally unexpected species from our biogeographic analysis. We assumed that the more likely species to occur might be Spirastrella cunctatrix, which might have been introduced to the Indo-Pacific via the Suez Canal. Alternatively, this could be Spirastrella sabogae
Spirastrella decumbens	Ridley, 1884	Torres Straits	Topsent (1897), van Soest (1990), Hooper et al. (2000), Calcinai et al. (2006; sensu Kirkpatrick 1900a), Azzini et al. (2007b), Lim et al. (2012a, as Spirastrella decumbens var. robusta), Becking et al. (2013), Lim et al. (2016)
Spirastrella pachyspira	Lévi, 1958	E Red Sea, Saudi Arabia	Hooper et al. (2000)
Spirastrella tristellata	Topsent, 1897	Ambon	Topsent (1897), Hooper et al. (2000)
(Unconf.: Thoosa cactoides)	Hancock, 1849	In the pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: As we do not know the exact type location of this species, we did not count it for any specific bioregion
(Unconf.: Thoosa circumflexa)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Coral Triangle. According to van Soest et al. (2017), this is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, we did not include this species here in our biogeographic analysis
(Unconf.: Thoosa letellieri)	Topsent, 1891	Unknown, sample found in Caen, on Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Coral Triangle. According to van Soest et al. (2017), this is a taxon inquirendum, but after viewing Topsent’s samples in Paris (2006–2007), CS finds this to be a good species. As we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, we did not include this species here
(Unconf.: Thoosa radiata)	Topsent, 1888	Unknown, in Tridacna sp., a genus which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	No other primary records found. CS: It is an Indo-Pacific sponge and may possibly occur in the Coral Triangle. However, as we cannot confirm the exact origin of Topsent’s sample, we did not include this species here
Zyzzya criceta	Schönberg, 2000	Central GBR	J. Marlow, pers. comm. (2016, Celebes Sea); CS: See also http://www.kudalaut.eu/en/dph/5483/Photos-Sale/Boring-sponge; http://www.kudalaut.eu/en/dph/4793/Photos-Sale/Sponge
Japan , especially the Ryukyu Islands , Korea (18 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water) – Y. Ise pers. comm. (2017) : Species identifications partly unconfirmed, need re-assessment
Cliona cf. amplicavata	Rützler, 1974	Bermuda	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2004, Ryukyu Islands, preliminary identification only)
(Cliona argus) (Cliona argus var. laevicollis)	Thiele, 1898	Hakodate, Tsugaru Strait, in mollusc and brachiopod shells	No other primary records found. CS: The type location is cold temperate, and in addition, the variety was sampled from 140 m. Cliona argus was thus not included in the biogeographic analysis
Cliona caesia	(Schönberg, 2000)	Central Great Barrier Reef	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2004, Ryukyu Islands); Hill et al. (2011)
Cliona aff. celata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Hoshino (1981), Hoshino (1987), C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2004, Ryukyu Islands); CS: Cliona celata was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012). All faunistic accounts are unreliable unless including molecular data. This report is unlikely to be Cliona celata sensu stricto but was still counted as a clionaid different from others in the bioregion
Cliona infrafoliata	(Thiele, 1898)	Hakodate, Tsugaru Strait, in mollusc and brachiopod shells	Hoshino (1981, as Suberites infrafoliatus), Tanita and Hoshino (1989, as Suberites infrafoliata); CS: The type location is cold temperate, but the sponge has later been recorded from Bingonada Sea, which has a mild, warm climate. Japanese waters are influenced by the Kuroshio Current, which supports corals further north than at some other places. The sponge was tentatively counted into the biogeographic analysis
Cliona cf. minuscula	Schönberg et al., 2006	Central Great Barrier Reef	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2004, Ryukyu Islands)
(Unconf.: Cliona orientalis)	Thiele, 1900	Molucca Sea, Indonesia	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2004, Ryukyu Islands), Schönberg et al. (2008); CS: Several characters of Cliona raromicrosclera, Cliona reticulata and Cliona orientalis are very similar. Cliona orientalis and Cliona reticulata have almost identical spicule dimensions, but in both, tylostyles are about 100 μm shorter than those of Cliona raromicrosclera. Pending a direct comparison, we avoided possible duplication of the same species; only Cliona raromicrosclera and Cliona reticulata were counted into the biogeography
Cliona aff. raromicrosclera	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Gulf of California	Hoshino (1981, as Anthosigmella), Hoshino (1987), Tanita and Hoshino (1989, as Anthosigmella); CS & JLC: This might be an unlikely record for Japan and belongs to the taxonomically difficult Cliona viridis complex. For example, several characters of Cliona raromicrosclera and Cliona reticulata are very similar. However, as Cliona reticulata tylostyles are about 100 μm shorter than those of Cliona raromicrosclera, both species were tentatively counted
Cliona reticulata	Ise and Fujita, 2005	Ryukyu Islands	No other primary records found
Cliothosa hancocki	(Topsent, 1888)	French Polynesia	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2004, Ryukyu Islands); CS regards this name as a species complex that needs to be resolved per respective bioregion. It is here still counted as a species distinct from the others occurring in this region
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Referring to Hancock’s sample and thus not reporting a confirmed sample site: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: It is possible that Cornulella purpurea occurs in this bioregion, but as the sample site is unknown and cannot be conclusively matched to our bioregions, this species did not become part of our analysis
(Pione concharum)	(Thiele, 1898)	Hakodate, Tsugaru Strait (maybe also Sagami Bay), in mollusc and brachiopod shells	No other primary records found. CS: The confirmed sampling area is cold temperate, and Pione concharum was thus conservatively excluded from the biogeographic analysis
Pione aff. vastifica	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Hoshino (1981, 1987, as Cliona); Schönberg pers. obs. (2004, Ryukyu Islands)
Spheciospongia panis	(Thiele, 1898)	Sagami Bay	Hoshino (1976, 1977, 1982, 1987, as Spirastrella), Tanita and Hoshino (1989, as Spirastrella); CS: This is a massive species that was sampled from 51–80 m but was found as far south as subtropical Amami Oshima
Spheciospongia peleia	(De Laubenfels, 1954)	Palau	Hoshino (1981, as Ridleya); CS: Recorded from Ishigaki Island that is described as semi-tropical and counted. Ise et al. (2004) synonymised Spheciospongia peleia with Spheciospongia vagabunda (or inconstans), a decision that is not here followed
(Spheciospongia rotunda)	(Tanita and Hoshino, 1989)	Sagami Bay	Tanita and Hoshino (1989, as Spirastrella); CS: This is a massive species that was sampled from 80–90 m and was conservatively excluded from the biogeographic analysis
Unconf.: Spheciospongia cf. vagabunda	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	? Ise et al. (2004, as Spheciospongia inconstans)
Spheciospongia sp. undetermined	Presently not adequately resolved	Reported from various sites in Japan	Hoshino (1977, 1981, 1987 as Cliona lobata); CS: Reported from Kii Channel, but apparently inconsistent with the original description for Cliona lobata. This is a massive sponge with exceptionally fine spirasters that does not match any of the other Japanese Spheciospongia species and was counted for the biogeographic analysis as an undetermined clionaid
Spirastrella abata	Tanita, 1961	Kurushima Strait	Tanita (1967, 1968, 1969), Hoshino (1981, 1987), Tanita and Hoshino (1989); CS: Was recorded from the Ariake Sea and tentatively counted
Spirastrella aff. coccinea (cunctatrix?, sabogae?)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Caribbean	Hoshino (1981, 1987); CS: See Boury-Esnault et al. (1999) on the distribution of similar Spirastrella spp. Spirastrella coccinea and Spirastrella cunctatrix are morphologically very similar
Spirastrella insignis	Thiele, 1898	Sagami Bay	Thiele (1898), Tanita (1961, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1969), Hoshino (1977, 1987), Tanita and Hoshino (1989); CS: Was recorded from the Ariake Sea
Spirastrella yongmeoriensis	Kim and Sim, 2009	East China Sea	No other primary records found
Thoosa sp.	Not formally described	Reported from Okinawa	C. Schönberg pers. obs. (2004, Ryukyu Islands, only identified to genus)
Central Pacific Islands (Fiji, Hawaii, French Polynesia, Funafuti, Vanuatu, Marshall Islands, Marianas, Easter Islands) ( 29 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Alectona wallichii	(Carter, 1874)	Agulhas Bank, S of Africa (Carter: also from the ‘South Sea’ and Seychelles), first reported as spicules in sediment	? Smyth (1990, as Alectona sp.?), Vacelet (1999, in calcareous rock, but also from Tuléar in intertidal scleractinians)
Aplysinella rhax	(De Laubenfels, 1954)	Marshall Islands	Tabudravu et al. (2002)
Cliona aff. celata	Grant, 1826	Scotland	Topsent (1932); CS: Cliona celata was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012). All faunistic accounts are unreliable unless including molecular data. This report is unlikely to be Cliona celata sensu stricto but was still counted as a clionaid different from others in the bioregion
Cliona ecaudis	Topsent, 1932	Society Islands	Topsent (1932), S. Pohler pers. comm. (2009, Fiji); CS: Spicules of Cliona ecaudis could easily be interpreted as immature spicules of Cliona mucronata. After viewing Cliona ecaudis type material (C. Schönberg pers. obs. 2006–2007), it is here accepted as separate species
Cliona ensifera	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Smyth (1990), Kelly et al. (2003)
Cliona euryphylle	Topsent, 1888	Campeche, Gulf of Mexico	De Laubenfels (1954, as Cliona euryphylla)
(Unconf.: Cliona insidiosa)	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found. CS: The sponge could possibly occur in this bioregion but was not noted since its description. As the exact type location is unknown, it was not included in the biogeographic analysis
Cliona johnstonii	(Carter, 1886)	Bass Strait	Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Cliona schmidti); CS: We tentatively list all ‘Cliona schmidtii’ reported from the Indo-Pacific as Cliona johnstonii to imply that the two species are different. See van Soest et al. (2017) for comments on the distribution of Cliona schmidtii
Cliona mucronata	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which is not useful information. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Kirkpatrick (1900a)
Cliona aff. orientalis	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Molucca Sea, Indonesia	? Topsent (1932, as Cliona viridis and a variety of Cliona caribbaea), ? de Laubenfels (1954, as Cliona lobata), Smyth (1990, as Cliona viridis), Kelly et al. (2003, as Cliona viridis)
Cliona raromicrosclera	(Dickinson, 1945)	Gulf of California	No other primary records found
Cliona aff. topsenti	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Adriatic Sea	Topsent (1932)
Cliona valentis	(De Laubenfels, 1957)	Hawaii	Bergquist (1977, as Anthosigmella or Spirastrella)
Cliona vermifera	Hancock, 1867	Unknown. In Chama sp., information which does not provide further clues	Topsent (1932); CS: Cliona vermifera is thought to be a species complex (see e.g. León-Pech et al. 2015), but pending new results is here treated as a single species
Cliothosa hancocki	(Topsent, 1888)	French Polynesia	Topsent (1932), Highsmith (1981a, as Cliona cf. quadrata); CS regards this as a species complex that needs to be resolved per bioregion. It is here still counted as a species distinct from the others occurring in this region
(Cliothosa quadrata)	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	CS: After accessing Topsent’s samples at the Paris Museum (2006–2007), CS regards Cliothosa hancocki as a species complex. Cliothosa hancocki and Cliothosa quadrata are very similar (e.g. Calcinai et al. 2005). To avoid possible duplication, only Cliothosa hancocki was counted for our biogeographic analysis (more commonly used name), even though Cliothosa quadrata has been reported in the area (see above)
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Referring to Hancock’s sample and thus not reporting a confirmed sample site: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: It is possible that Cornulella purpurea occurs in this bioregion, but as the sample site is unknown and cannot be conclusively matched to our bioregions, this species did not become part of our analysis
(Diplastrella spiniglobata): recommendation to reassess genus allocation	(Carter, 1879)	‘South Sea’	Bergquist (1967, 1977); CS: The spicules depicted by Carter suggest that it is not a bioeroding sponge but it may be closer to a Placospongia. The spicules in the figure in Bergquist (1967) may suggest a tethyid? The species needs to be reassessed and was not counted
Dotona davidi: recommendation to reassess genus allocation	(Kirkpatrick, 1900a)	Tuvalu	No other primary records found. CS: The species is described to have microacanthose subtylotes and may be an acarnid. Without examining the type material, we were unable to make a clear decision on a genus allocation, but we presently counted this record into the Poecilosclerida for the biogeographic analysis
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Topsent (1932, as Cliona); CS: The material was reported to have two colours and may represent two different species but was counted as one
Pione aff. vastifica	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Scotland	Topsent (1932, as Cliona), de Laubenfels (1950b, 1954, as Cliona), Bergquist (1977, as Cliona), Desqueyroux-Faúndez (1990, as Cliona), Smyth (1990), Kelly et al. (2003); CS: The Pione species complex is taxonomically difficult and confused. However, this species was counted as different to Pione carpenteri
Siphonodictyon cf. diagonoxeum	(Thomas, 1968)	Sri Lanka	Highsmith (1981, as Aka cf. diagonoxeum); CS: This record needs to be checked against Siphonodictyon maldiviense but was counted as a separate Siphonodictyon sp.
Siphonodictyon sp. yellow	Not formally described	Reported from the Mariana Islands	Kelly et al. (2003); CS: May or may not be conspecific with the yellow Siphonodictyon sp. from the central Great Barrier Reef
Spheciospongia globularis	(Dendy, 1922)	Chagos	Kelly et al. (2003)
Spheciospongia potamophera: reversed comb. to Spirastrella potamophera	De Laubenfels, 1954	Marshall Islands	Kelly et al. (2003, as Spheciospongia); CS: The original description characterises this species as encrusting; having tylostyles and large, robust, conically spined spirasters and derivates; and inflated surface canals in branching-radiate, raylike arrangement typical for Spirastrella. The sponge is thus presently returned to Spirastrella
Spheciospongia solida	(Ridley and Dendy, 1886)	Philippines	Tendal (1969, as Spirastrella)
Spheciospongia vagabunda	(Ridley, 1884)	Torres Straits	? De Laubenfels (1954, as Anthosigmella), Bergquist (1967, as Spirastrella), Bergquist et al. (1971, as Spirastrella), Bergquist (1977, as Spirastrella), Tendal (1969, as Spirastrella), Kelly et al. (2003)
(Spirastrella aff. coccinea)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Caribbean	Bergquist (1967), Bergquist et al. (1971), Bergquist (1977); CS: See comments for Spirastrella aff. cunctatrix
Spirastrella aff. cunctatrix (sabogae?)	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Algeria, Mediterranean	Desqueyroux-Faúndez (1990); CS: This record requires confirmation. See Boury-Esnault et al. (1999) about the distribution of similar Spirastrella spp. Spirastrella coccinea and Spirastrella cunctatrix are morphologically very similar. To avoid possible duplication, we excluded one of the locally unexpected species from our biogeographic analysis. We assumed that the more likely species to occur might be Spirastrella cunctatrix, which might have been introduced to the Indo-Pacific via the Suez Canal. Alternatively, this could be Spirastrella sabogae
Spirastrella decumbens	Ridley, 1884	Torres Straits	De Laubenfels (1954)
Spirastrella keaukaha	De Laubenfels, 1951	Hawaii	De Laubenfels (1951), Ball (1975, as Spirastrella keaukaha (coccinea?))
Thoosa amphiasterina	Topsent, 1920	French Polynesia, presumably in shallow water, because of Tridacna sp.	Topsent (1932), Azzini et al. (2007a)
Thoosa bulbosa	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in the Indo-Pacific	Smyth (1990), Kelly et al. (2003)
Zyzzya fuliginosa	(Carter, 1879)	Torres Straits	Luke (1998, partly as Zyzzya massalis), Van Soest et al. (1994)
Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) between S California and Galápagos Islands (27 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in warm water)
Cliona amplicavata	Rützler, 1974	Bermuda	Carballo et al. (2004, 2008a), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010), Pacheco Solano (2012, 2015), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Cliona californiana	De Laubenfels, 1932	N California	? De Laubenfels (1939, as Cliona celata), ? Luke (1998, partly as Cliona celata, partly as Cliona celata var. californica), Carballo et al. (2004), Carballo et al. (2008a), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010), Pacheco Solano (2012, 2015), Ávila et al. (2012), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Cliona cf. chilensis	Thiele, 1905	Chilean Patagonia	Desqueyroux-Faúndez and van Soest (1997); CS: The name Cliona chilensis apparently comprises two species, with one of them extending at least as far north as N Chile (de Paula et al. 2012)
Cliona ensifera	Sollea, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	Cortés (1992), Guzmán and Cortés (1993)
Cliona euryphylle	Topsent, 1888	Campeche, Gulf of Mexico	Carballo et al. (2004, as Cliona euryphylla), Carballo et al. (2008a, as Cliona euryphylla), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010, as euryphylla), Ávila et al. (2012, as Cliona euryphylla), Pacheco Solano (2012, 2015, both as Cliona euryphylla), Alvarado et al. (2017, as Cliona euryphylla)
Cliona flavifodina	Rützler, 1974	Bermuda	Carballo et al. (2004), Carballo et al. (2008a), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010), Alvarado et al. (2017)
(Unconf.: Cliona johannae)	Topsent, 1932	Unknown. In the red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, which occurs in the E Pacific, Oregon to Baja California, but published for Western Australia	No other primary records found. CS: This species was previously published to be from Western Australia. However, the host material suggests an E Pacific distribution, but the sponge was not reported since its description. We more strongly relied on the stated type location and counted this sponge for W Australia, not here
Cliona medinae	Cruz-Barraza et al., 2011	Isla Clarion, Mexican Pacific	Carballo et al. (2008a, as Cliona sp. 2), Cruz-Barraza et al. (2011), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Cliona microstrongylata	Carballo and Cruz-Barraza, 2005	Gulf of California	Carballo and Cruz-Barraza (2005), Carballo et al. (2008a), Pacheco Solano (2015)
Cliona aff. mucronata	Unresolved species complex	Sensu stricto: Unknown, likely Indo-Pacific	Bautista-Guerrero et al. (2006), Carballo et al. (2008a, 2008b), Pacheco Solano (2012, 2015, as Cliona cf. mucronata), Alvarado et al. (2017); JLC: Cliona mucronata is a species complex (see Pacheco Solano 2015); CS: Local spicule shapes strongly resemble those displayed by Rützler et al. (2014), but their spicules are longer (see also Pacheco Solano 2015). Neither of the authors described spirasters, as occur in C. mucronata sensu stricto
Cliona papillae	Carballo et al., 2004	Mazatlán	Carballo et al. (2004), Carballo et al. (2008a), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010)
Cliona pocillopora	Bautista-Guerrero et al., 2006	Nayarit	Bautista-Guerrero et al. (2006), Carballo et al. (2008a), Pacheco Solano (2012, 2015), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Cliona raromicrosclera	(Dickinson, 1945)	Gulf of California	Carballo et al. (2004), Carballo et al. (2008a), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Cliona tropicalis	Cruz-Barraza et al., 2011	Nayarit	Carballo et al. (2008a, as Cliona sp. 1), Cruz-Barraza et al. (2011), Pacheco Solano (2015), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Cliona vallartense	Carballo et al., 2004	Jalisco	Carballo et al. (2004), Carballo et al. (2008a), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Cliona vermifera	Hancock, 1867	Unknown. In Chama sp., information which does not provide further clues	Carballo et al. (2004, 2008a, b), Pacheco Solano (2012), Bautista-Guerrero et al. (2014), León-Pech et al. (2015), Pacheco Solano (2015), Alvarado et al. (2017); CS: Cliona vermifera is thought to be a species complex (see e.g. León-Pech et al. 2015), but pending new results is here treated as a single species
Cliothosa tylostrongylata	Cruz-Barraza et al., 2011	Oaxaca	Carballo et al. (2008a, b, as Cliothosa hancocki), Cruz-Barraza et al. (2011), Pacheco Solano (2015), Alvarado et al. (2017)
(Unconf.: Cornulella purpurea)	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown, sample found in Tridacna gigas, which has an Indo-Pacific distribution	Only referring to Hancock’s sample: Kirkpatrick (1900a, as Dyscliona), Topsent (1907, as undetermined genus), Hallmann (1920, as Paracornulum), Rützler and Stone (1986, as Cliona), van Soest et al. (1994); CS: Cornulella purpurea might occur in this bioregion, but as the type location is unknown, this species did not become part of our analysis
Pione carpenteri	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Carballo et al. (2004, 2008a, 2008b), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010), Pacheco Solano (2012, 2015, both as ‘cf.’), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Pione mazatlanensis	(Hancock, 1867)	Mazatlán	Carballo et al. (2004), Carballo et al. (2008a), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010), Pacheco Solano (2015, as ‘cf.’), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Siphonodictyon crypticum	(Carballo et al., 2007)	Oaxaca	Carballo et al. (2007, 2008a, 2008b, as Aka), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Spheciospongia confoederata	De Laubenfels, 1930	California	De Laubenfels (1932), Luke (1998)
Spheciospongia incrustans	Carballo et al., 2004	Jalisco	Carballo et al. (2004), Carballo et al. (2008a), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Spheciospongia ruetzleri	Carballo et al., 2004	Nayarit	Carballo et al. (2004), Carballo et al. (2008a)
Spirastrella decumbens	Ridley, 1884	Torres Straits	Carballo and Nava (2007), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010, as Spiastrella decubens)
Spirastrella sabogae	Boury-Esnault et al., 1999	Pacific Panama	? Dickinson (1945, as Spirastrella coccinea), Boury-Esnault et al. (1999)
Thoosa calpulli	Carballo et al., 2004	Nayarit	Carballo et al. (2004, 2008a, 2008b), Pacheco Solano (2015, as ‘cf.’), Bautista-Guerrero et al. (2016), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Thoosa mismalolli	Carballo et al., 2004	Jalisco	Carballo et al. (2008a), Bautista-Guerrero et al. (2010), Verdín Padilla et al. (2010), Pacheco Solano (2012, 2015), Bautista-Guerrero et al. (2016), Alvarado et al. (2017)
Thoosa purpurea	Cruz-Barraza et al., 2011	Revillagigedo Archipelago	Alvarado et al. (2017)
Corals in cold-water habitats of the Atlant o -Mediterranean (AM) or Indo-Pacific (IP) (e.g. Lophelia/ Madrepora/hydrozoan communities or precious corals such as Corallium, Paracorallium; most samples from deeper than 100 m but also partly from diving depths if in colder water) (49 spp. of coral-eroding sponges in cold water)
(Alectona mesatlantica)	Vacelet, 1999	Mid-Atlantic Ridge, in 2030 m, in calcareous rock	AM: No other primary record known from cold-water reefs. CS: According to Wheeler et al. (2007), the sponge’s type location is not known for coral carbonate mounds with, e.g. Lophelia. This species has not yet been recorded from corals and was not counted for the cold-water coral eroders
Alectona microspiculata	Bavestrello et al., 1998	Philippines, depth not stated, in Distichopora sp.	IP: No other primary record known. CS: No depth stated, but samples from commercial fisheries. We counted it assuming it was from some depth
Alectona millari	Carter, 1879	N Atlantic between N Scotland and Faroe Islands, 653 m, in Madrepora oculata (latter as Amphihelia)	AM: Jennings (1891, Denmark, from shallow depths?, in mollusc shells), Topsent (1900, at the Faroes, Norway, Azores, French Mediterranean, in corals), Topsent (1904, Azores, 880 m, in a coral, 1920, Gulf of Lion, Mediterranean, 500–600 m, substrate not described), Alander (1935, 1942, Norway and Sweden, 85–1190 m, in Lophelia), Barletta and Vighi (1968, Strait of Bonifacio, 100 m, in Corallium rubrum), Vacelet (1969, Ligurian Sea, 146–170 m, in Dendrophyllia cornigera), Templado et al. (1986, Alboran Sea, 100–200 m, from Corallium rubrum community, but maybe not in the coral), Jensen and Frederiksen (1992, Faroe Islands, 252–260 m, in dead Lophelia pertusa), Maldonado (1992, Alboran Sea, 70–120 m, in Corallium rubrum), Freiwald and Wilson (1998, as Alectona millaris, Norway, 200–400 m, in Lophelia pertusa), Hansson (1999, Scandinavia, depth and substrate not specified), Borchiellini et al. (2004, NW Atlantic off Ireland, 590–880 m, in corals), Beuck and Freiwald (2005, Porcupine Bight, 780 m, in Lophelia pertusa), Beuck et al. (2007, Porcupine Bight, 1039 m, in Lophelia pertusa), Roberts et al. (2009, Porcupine Bight, in Lophelia pertusa), van Soest and Beglinger (2009, Mingulay Reefs, in Lophelia and Madrepora spp.), Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral); CS: The species can also occur in shallow depths
Alectona sarai	Calcinai et al., 2008a	Japan, 120 m, in Paracorallium japonicum	IP: Calcinai et al. (2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Alectona sorrentini	Bavestrello et al., 1998	Japan Sea, depth not stated, in Corallium elatius	IP: Calcinai et al. (2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral); CS: Sample obtained through commercial fisheries and assumed to be from some depth. It was counted into the cold-water category of the analysis
Alectona triradiata	Lévi and Lévi, 1983	New Caledonia, 290–350 m, in calcareous substrate	IP: Bavestrello et al. (1998, Japan Sea, depth not stated, in Corallium elatius), Calcinai et al. (2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Alectona verticillata	(Johnson, 1899)	Madeira, ‘from deep water’, in Corallium johnsoni (as Pleurocorallium) and Dendrophyllia ramea	AM, IP: Calcinai et al. (2004b, Ryukyu Islands, 195–300 m, in Corallium elatius), Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean and Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Alectona wallichii	(Carter, 1874)	Agulhas Bank, S of Africa (Carter: also from the ‘South Sea’ and Seychelles), 144–180 m, first reported as spicules in sediment	IP, AM?: Carter (1879, as Corticium, in the ‘South Seas’ in Stylaster sanguineus), Bavestrello et al. (1998, Japan Sea, depth not stated, in Corallium elatius), Hansson (1999, Scandinavia, depth and substrate not specified), Calcinai et al. (2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral); CS: Hansson’s record requires reassessment and is presently not accepted as correct
Alectona sp.	Not formally described, but reported by Bavestrello et al. (1998)	Japan Sea, depth not stated, in Corallium elatius	IP: No other original report known from cold-water reefs. CS: The species appears to be different to all other known Alectona spp. and was counted
(Cliona annulifera)	Annandale, 1915b	Sri Lanka, 1265 m, in mollusc shells	Thomas (1979b), Pattanayak (2009); CS: This species was not included in the cold-water analysis, because it was only found in mollusc shells and it was not clear whether it was sampled from a coral habitat
Cliona caledoniae	Van Soest and Beglinger, 2009	Scotland, Mingulay Reefs in Lophelia and Madrepora spp., 127 m (paratypes 82–131 m)	AM: No other original report known from cold-water reefs
Cliona cf. celata	Grant, 1826	Scotland, from shore, in Ostrea edulis shells	AM: Alander (1942, Sweden, to 200 m, in thick-shelled bivalves), Hansson (1999, Scandinavia, depth and substrate not specified), Cruz Simó (2002, depth not stated, in Dendrophyllia ramea); CS: These accounts of Cliona celata may refer to different species. It was described from Scotland and represents a taxonomically difficult species complex (Xavier et al. 2010, de Paula et al. 2012). All faunistic accounts are unreliable unless including molecular data. These reports are unlikely to represent Cliona celata sensu stricto but were still counted as a clionaid different from others in the bioregion
Cliona chilensis	Thiele, 1905	Chilean Patagonia, 18 m, massive or on shells	IP, AM: Försterra et al. (2005, Chilean Patagonia, shallow water, in Desmophyllum dianthus), Willenz et al. (2009, Chilean Patagonia, 1–30 m, in ‘stony corals’); CS: It also occurs in the Atlantic (e.g. de Paula et al. 2012)
Cliona desimoni	(Bavestrello et al., 1995)	W Pacific, off Taiwan, 150–200 m, in Corallium elatius	IP: Calcinai et al. (2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
(Unconf.: Cliona ensifera)	Sollas, 1878	Unknown, found in an octocoral (Isis sp.), which does not provide further information about the sample site. Assumed to be from the Indo-Pacific	IP?: Pica et al. (2012, likely New Caledonia, in Distichopora sp., but depth unknown); CS: This record was not counted, because it might have been for a shallow, warm-water environment
Cliona janitrix	Topsent, 1932	Strait of Bonifacio, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in oyster shell	AM: Melone (1965, Strait of Bonifacio, 60 m, in Corallium rubrum), Barletta and Vighi (1968, different sites in the Mediterranean, 25–100 m, in Corallium rubrum), Corriero et al. (1997, Ligurian Sea, 20–45 m, in Corallium rubrum), Calcinai et al. (2002, Ligurian Sea, 15–35 m, in Corallium rubrum and Leptopsammia pruvoti), Rosell and Uriz (2002, Balearic Sea, Mediterranean, 30 m, in Corallium rubrum), Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Cliona lobata	Hancock, 1849	English Channel	AM: Alander (1942, Sweden, down to 1265 m, in thin-shelled bivalves), Topsent (1900, in England, Denmark, Belgium and France, but the substrate mentioned referred to mollusc shells), Hansson (1999, Norway, depth and substrate not specified), Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Cliona cf. schmidtii	(Ridley, 1881); based on an erroneous record of a ‘variety’ of Vioa johnstonii in Schmidt, 1870 p. 5	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean, depth not stated, substrate not specified	AM: Cruz-Simó (2002, Canary Islands, depth not stated, in Dendrophyllia ramea)
Cliona vermifera	Hancock, 1867	Unknown. In Chama sp., information which does not provide further clues	AM, IP?: Corriero et al. (1997, Ligurian Sea, 20–45 m, in Corallium rubrum); CS: Cliona vermifera is thought to be a species complex (see e.g. León-Pech et al. 2015). Pending new results, it is treated as a single species
Cliona viridis	(Schmidt, 1862)	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean, depth not stated, as massive sponge and in Cladocora caespitosa (as Caryophyllaea)	AM: ? Templado et al. (1986, as Cliona copiosa, Alboran Sea, 100–200 m, from Corallium rubrum community, but maybe not in the coral), Corriero et al. (1997, Ligurian Sea, 20–45 m, in Corallium rubrum community but not in the coral itself), Hansson (1999, Norway, depth and substrate not specified), Sitjà and Maldonado (2014, Alboran Sea, 52–92 m, substrate not specified); CS: Only tentatively counted, because it has access to corals
(Cornulum virguliferum)	(Lévi and Lévi, 1983)	New Caledonia, 175–430 m, in foraminiferan	IP: No other primary record known from cold-water reefs. CS: As the sponge was reported at depth from a foraminiferan, it was only included in the warm-water coral-related biogeographic analysis
Delectona alboransis	Rosell, 1996	Alboran Sea, W Mediterranean, 70–120 m, in Corallium rubrum	AM: No other primary record known from cold-water reefs
Delectona ciconiae	Bavestrello et al., 1996	Alboran Sea, W Mediterranean (but also found at Elba Island, Bosa Marina, 80–120 m, in Corallium rubrum)	AM: ? Barletta and Vighi (1968, as Thoosa sp., different sites in the Mediterranean, 25–100 m, in Corallium rubrum), Calcinai et al. (2002, Ligurian Sea, 25 m, in Corallium rubrum, 2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Delectona higgini	(Carter, 1880)	Sri Lanka, depth not stated, in coralline algae	IP: No other primary record known from cold-water reefs. CS: Carter did not state a sampling depth and reported coralline algae as substrate. The sample may have originated in shallow, warm water. However, as the three other Delectona spp. occur in deep water, Delectona higgini was tentatively included in the cold-water count as well
Delectona madreporica	Bavestrello et al., 1997	Ligurian Sea, 22 m, in Leptopsammia pruvoti and Madracis pharensis	AM: ? Barletta and Vighi (1968, as Thoosa sp., different sites in the Mediterranean, 25–100 m, in Corallium rubrum), Calcinai et al. (2002, Ligurian Sea, 15 m, in Leptopsammia pruvoti)
Dercitus (Stoeba) plicatus	(Schmidt, 1868)	Algeria, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in coralline algae	AM: Templado et al. (1986, Alboran Sea, 80–120 m, from Corallium rubrum community, but maybe not in the coral), ? Calcinai et al. (2002, as Dercitus sp., Ligurian Sea, 25 m, in Corallium rubrum, 2010, as Stoeba spp., Mediterranean and Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral), Mastrototaro et al. (2010, as Stoeba plicata, Ionian Sea, 513–747 m, in Madrepora oculata and Lophelia pertusa), Sitjà and Maldonado (2014, Alboran Sea, 52–112 m, substrate not specified)
Diplastrella bistellata	(Schmidt, 1862)	Adriatic sea, Mediterranean, depth or substrate not stated	AM: Vacelet (1969, Gulf of Lion, substrate not described), Maldonado (1992, Alboran Sea, 70–120 m, on Corallium rubrum), Sitjà and Maldonado (2014, Alboran Sea, 87–92 m, substrate not specified)
Dotona pulchella	Carter, 1880	Sri Lanka, depth not stated, in coralline algae	AM, IP: Topsent (1904, Azores, 880 m, in corals), Calcinai et al. (2001, Taiwan, between 250 and 400 m, in Corallium elatius), Rosell and Uriz (2002, as Dotona pulchella subsp. mediterranea, Alboran Sea, Mediterranean, 70–120 m, in Corallium rubrum), Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean and Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral); CS: As all the reports from the Atlanto-Mediterranean region are from deeper waters, the Sri Lankan sample was also counted for deep water
Holoxea excavans	Calcinai et al., 2001	Taiwan, between 250 and 400 m, in Corallium elatius	IP: Calcinai et al. (2008b Japan, depth not stated, in Paracorallium japonicum, 2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Holoxea furtiva	Topsent, 1892	Gulf of Lion, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in coralline algae	AM: Templado et al. (1986, Alboran Sea, 100–200 m, from Corallium rubrum community, but maybe not in the coral), Calcinai et al. (2001, Cape Verde Islands, depth not stated, in Corallium rubrum, 2010, as Holoxea furtive, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
(Neamphius huxleyi)	(Sollas, 1888)	Vanuatu, 108–126 m, massive sponge	IP: No other primary record known from cold-water reefs. CS: But numerous (here ignored) publications on the biochemistry of this species are available that suggest that the species is widely distributed in the Pacific. As we have no knowledge whether this sponge erodes corals, we did not use this record
Pione vastifica	(Hancock, 1849)	Scotland, depth not stated, from mollusc shells	AM: Alander (1942, as Cliona, Sweden, 65–600 m, in Lophelia), Templado et al. (1986, as Cliona, Alboran Sea, 100–200 m, from Corallium rubrum community, but maybe not in the coral), Maldonado (1992, as Cliona, Alboran Sea, 70–120 m, in Corallium rubrum), Cruz-Simó (2002, as Cliona, Canary Islands, depth not stated, in Dendrophyllia ramea), Hansson (1999, Scandinavia, depth and substrate not specified)
Siphonodictyon corallirubri	(Calcinai et al., 2007b)	Tyrrhenian Sea, depth unknown, in Corallium rubrum	AM: Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Siphonodictyon infestum	(Johnson, 1899)	Madeira, depth not stated, in bivalve shells	AM: ? Topsent (1904, as Cliona labyrinthica), ? Alander (1942, as Aka labyrinthica, W Norway and Sweden, 85–300 m, in Lophelia), ? Melone (1965, as Cliona labyrinthica, 60–75 m, Strait of Bonifacio in Corallium rubrum), ? Jensen and Frederiksen (1992, as Siphonodictyon labyrinthicum, Faroe Islands, 252–260 m, in dead Lophelia pertusa), ? Corriero et al. (1997, as Aka labyrinthica, Ligurian Sea, 20–45 m, in Corallium rubrum), ? Freiwald and Wilson (1998, as Aka labyrinthica, Norway in Lophelia pertusa), ? Hansson (1999, as Siphonodictyon labyrinthica, Scandinavia, substrate or depth not described), ? Calcinai et al. (2002, as Aka labitinthyca, Ligurian Sea, 25 m, in Corallium rubrum), ? Rosell and Uriz (2002a, as Aka labyrinthica, Balearic Sea, Mediterranean, 30 m, in Corallium rubrum), Beuck et al. (2007, as Aka infesta, Porcupine Bight, 1030 m, in Lophelia pertusa), Schönberg and Beuck (2007, Ionian Sea, 671–679 m, in Madrepora oculata), Beuck et al. (2010, Ionian Sea, 671–679 m, in Madrepora oculata), Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Siphonodictyon insidiosum	(Johnson, 1899)	Madeira, depth not stated, in bivalve shells	AM: ? Barletta and Vighi (1968, as Cliona labyrinthica, different sites in the Mediterranean, 25–100 m, in Corallium rubrum), Calcinai et al. (2008b, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in Corallium rubrum, 2010, Mediterranean and Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Siphonodictyon labyrinthicum	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown type location, but found in the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, which occurs in the Indo-Pacific in shallow water	IP: Pica et al. (2012, as Aka, likely New Caledonia, in Distichopora sp., but depth unknown), Calcinai et al. (2008b, 2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral); CS: This species has been widely—and erroneously—reported from the Atlanto-Mediterranean region (see Schönberg and Beuck 2007 for details). None of the presently available accounts can be considered as reliable, but the species was tentatively counted for cold-water reefs, because its spicule shape was more congruent with deep-water species
Siphonodictyon rodens	(Johnson, 1899)	Madeira, ‘from deep water’ in Dendrophyllia ramea	AM: ? Vacelet (1969, as Cliona labyrinthica, Gulf of Lion, 175–235 m, in rock debris); CS: The spicules of Vacelet’s material may be too thin to match this species (his oxea dimensions given as 130–170 × 2.5–5 μm). Van Soest et al. (2017) synonymised it with Siphonodictyon insidiosum. It is here listed, tentatively recognised as a valid species and counted, because a morphometric study on the spicules revealed differences between the Johnson species (Schönberg and Beuck 2007; although this was based on hand drawings of the spicules)
(Siphonodictyon spp.)	Not formally described, reported by Cruz in a few publications	Canary Islands, depth not stated, in corals, calcareous algae and mollusc shells	AM: Cruz and Bacallado (1983) and Cruz Simó (2002, Canary Islands, depth not stated, e.g. in Dendrophyllia ramea and Cladocora debilis); CS: After observing some of Cruz’s vouchers, it became clear that he had misidentified and combined more than one species under the same name. At least one species very much resembled Siphonodictyon brevitubulatum and is thus different from the other species listed here. However, as we cannot exactly allocate which record belongs to which substrate, we did not include this record in our biogeographic analysis
Spirastrella cunctatrix	Schmidt, 1868	Algeria, Mediterranean, depth and substrate not stated	AM: Templado et al. (1986, Alboran Sea, 100–200 m, from Corallium rubrum community, but maybe not in the coral); CS: The sponge erodes coral materials in shallow depths and was not excluded from the biogeographic analysis for cold-water habitats
Pione abyssorum: genus transfer to Spiroxya abyssorum new comb.	(Carter, 1874)	English Channel, 900 m, in Lophelia pertusa (as Lophohelia prolifera)	AM: Hansson (1999, as Cliona abyssorum, Scandinavia, depth and substrate not specified); CS: The species was listed as a Pione on the World Porifera Database (van Soest et al. 2017). However, based on the spicule combination of subtylostyles, smooth oxeas and helical microstrongyles, the species is here transferred to Spiroxya. Carter (1974) and Topsent (1904) already stated that the present species resembles other Spiroxya spp.
Spiroxya acus	(Bavestrello et al., 1995)	W Pacific, 150–200 m, in Corallium elatius	IP: Calcinai et al. (2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Spiroxya corallophila	(Calcinai et al., 2002b)	Ligurian Sea, Mediterranean, 30–35 m (but also other sites in the Mediterranean), in Corallium rubrum	AM: Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Spiroxya heteroclita	Topsent, 1896	Gulf of Lion, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in stones	AM: Corriero et al. (1997, Ligurian Sea, 20–45 m, in Corallium rubrum), Beuck and Freiwald (2005, also as Entobia laquea, Porcupine Bight, 780 m, in Lophelia pertusa), Longo et al. (2005, Ionian Sea, 640–662 m, substrate not specified), Beuck et al. (2007, Porcupine Bight, 1030 m, in Lophelia pertusa), Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral), Mastrototaro et al. (2010, Ionian Sea, 640–662 m, in Madrepora oculata and Lophelia pertusa)
Spiroxya levispira	(Topsent, 1898)	Azores, 880 m, in coral	AM: Topsent (1904, Azores, as Cliona levispira, 1165–1360 m, in coral), Boury-Esnault et al. (1994, as Cliona, Maroccan Atlantic, 1378 m, in pebbles or madrepores), Hansson (1999, as Cliona, Scandinavia, depth and substrate not specified), Rosell and Uriz (2002a, as Scantiletta, Balearic and Alboran Sea, Mediterranean, 30–120 m, in Corallium rubrum, 100 m, in Lophelia pertusa), Borchiellini et al. (2004, NW Atlantic off Ireland, 590–880 m, in corals), Longo et al. (2005, Ionian Sea, 634–809 m, substrate not specified), van Soest and Beglinger (2009, Mingulay Reefs and Rockall Bank, 82–762 m, in Lophelia and Madrepora spp.), Beuck et al. (2010, Ionian Sea, 300–1100 m, in Desmophyllum dianthus, Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata, Pseudamussium peslutrae), ? Calcinai et al. (2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral), Mastrototaro et al. (2010, Ionian Sea, 642–809 m, in Madrepora oculata and Lophelia pertusa), Bavestrello et al. (2014, Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean, 45–280 m, in Corallium rubrum); CS: The record for the Pacific by Calcinai et al. (2010) is here regarded as a possible mistake
Spiroxya macroxeata	(Calcinai et al., 2001)	Taiwan, between 250 and 400 m, in Corallium elatius	IP: No other original report known from cold-water reefs
Spiroxya pruvoti	(Topsent, 1900)	Gulf of Lion, 5–600 m, in coral	AM: Hansson (1999, Scandinavia, depth and substrate not specified)
Spiroxya sarai	(Melone, 1965)	Strait of Bonifacio, 68 m, in Corallium rubrum	AM: Barletta and Vighi (1968, different sites in the Mediterranean, 25–100 m, in Corallium rubrum), Corriero et al. (1997, as Cliona, Ligurian Sea, 20–45 m, in Corallium rubrum), Calcinai et al. (2002, as Cliona, Ligurian Sea, 30–35 m, in Corallium rubrum, 2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Thoosa armata	Topsent, 1888	Gulf of Guinea, depth and substrate not specified	AM: Topsent (1904, Azores, 599 m, in a coral), Barletta and Vighi (1968, Tyrrhenian Sea, 50–65 m, in Corallium rubrum), Templado et al. (1986, Alboran Sea, 100–200 m, from Corallium rubrum community, but maybe not in the coral), Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Thoosa bulbosa	Hancock, 1849	In the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, occurs in shallow waters of the Indo-Pacific	IP: Calcinai et al. (2001, Taiwan, between 250 and 400 m, in Corallium elatius, 2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
(Cliothosa investigatoris): recommendation to reassess genus allocation and to consider Thoosa, the genus used in the original description, or alternatively a sample including Cliothosa and Thoosa spicules	(Annandale, 1915b)	Sri Lanka, 1265 m, in gastropod shell	IP: Pattanayak (2009, as Thoosa); CS: The original description of Cliothosa investigatoris shares taxonomic characters that make it difficult to decide whether this species is a Cliothosa or a Thoosa (or both?). The species is presently listed as a Cliothosa (van Soest et al. 2017), which would however be a very unusual genus in deep water. Based on the occurrence of microacanthose, bulbous amphiasters, the species is more likely Thoosa. Nevertheless, lacking access to the type material, we have not made a firm decision. As this species has not yet been reported to erode coral materials, it was not counted
Thoosa midwayi	Azzini et al., 2007a	Midway Atoll, central N Pacific, between 100 and 1500 m, in Corallium sp.	IP: Calcinai et al. (2001, as Thoosa amphiasterina, Midway Atoll, central N Pacific, between 100 and 1500 m, in Corallium sp., 2010, Pacific, depth not stated, in precious coral)
Thoosa mollis	Volz, 1939	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean, 2–8 m, in calcareous stones	AM: Calcinai et al. (2010, Mediterranean, depth not stated, in precious coral)
(Thoosa sp.)	Not fully identified	Reported for bathyal depths at New Caledonia, in Vaceletia crypta Borchiellini et al. (2004)	CS: No further information provided. As we could not decide which species this could be and wanted to avoid duplication, we did not use this account
Triptolemma simplex	(Sarà, 1959)	Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean, 0–1 m in calcareous rock wall of cave	AM: Templado et al. (1986, Alboran Sea, 100–200 m, from Corallium rubrum community, but maybe not in the coral), ? Corriero et al. (1997, as Triptolemus sp., Ligurian Sea, 20–45 m, in Corallium rubrum), Bertolino et al. (2011, Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Sea, 30–40 m, in calcareous rock and Corallium rubrum)
Triptolemma strongylata	Bertolino et al., 2011	Japan, ca. 200 m, in Paracorallium japonicum	IP: No other original report known from cold-water reefs
Zyzzya coriacea	(Lundbeck, 1910)	N Atlantic, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 1438 m, massive sponge	AM: No other original report known. CS: The species’ distribution overlaps that of Lophelia reefs (van Soest et al. (2017), enabling us to count it
Valid species of bioeroding sponges that to date have neither been found in coral reef environments nor are known for eroding coral material (31 spp.)
Cliona adriatica	Calcinai et al., 2011	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean, in calcareous rock	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Cliona burtoni	Topsent, 1932	Bonifacio, W Mediterranean, in oyster shell	To date only known from the Mediterranean (e.g. Bertolino et al. 2013, Calcinai et al. 2015). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Cliona diversityla	Sarà, 1978, in serpulid tubes and mollusc shells	Tierra del Fuego	To date, only known from the Tierra del Fuego (e.g. Gappa and Landoni 2005). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Cliona labiata	(Keller, 1880)	Capri, Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean, massive sponge	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs, not described to embed or agglutinate calcareous materials. JLC and CS: It may well be that this is a synonym for the massive form of Cliona viridis, but we did not access type material
Cliona lesueuri	Topsent, 1888	Kangaroo Island, S Australia, in the whirling abalone Haliotis cyclobates (as Haliotis excavata)	No other primary records found. Reported to erode in mollusc shells, not yet for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Cliona lisa	Cuartas, 1991	Patagonia, in pebble	Only known from Argentina (e.g. Gappa and Landoni 2005). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Cliona parenzani	Corriero and Scalera-Liaci, 1997	Ionian Sea, Mediterranean, massive, eroding calcareous rock	Only known from the Mediterranean (e.g. Vacelet et al. 2008). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs. CS: Vacelet et al. (2008) may in part include Cliona burtoni, which, however, presents the same situation (see above)
Cliona rhodensis	Rützler and Bromley, 1981	Rhodes, E Mediterranean, 0.5–8 m, in Mesozoic limestone, coralline algae and pebbles	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Cliona spissaspira	Corriero and Nonnis Marzano, 2007	Ionian Sea, Mediterranean, in calcareous rock	No other primary records found. Reported to erode in calcareous rock, not yet for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Clionaopsis platei	Thiele, 1905	Patagonia, massive sponge	Only known from Patagonia (e.g. Willenz et al. 2009, referring to massive sponge, Diez et al. 2014, in oyster shell). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Diplastrella ornata	Rützler and Sarà, 1962	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	Only known from the Mediterranean. The sponge was found on the lower surface of a stone. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Pione angelae	Urteaga and Pastorino, 2007	Mar del Plata, Argentina, in gastropod shells	Only known from Patagonia and the Chilean fjords (e.g. Diez et al. 2014, in oyster shell). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs. CS: Pione muscoides and Pione angelae need to be compared, they may be synonymous
Pione gibraltarensis	Austin et al., 2014	W Canada, Gulf of Alaska, in bivalve shells	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Pione hancocki taxon inquirendum	(Schmidt, 1862)	Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean	No other primary records found. CS: The species type has a very unusual spicule combination that seems to include Pione-like tylostyles and spined or nodulose rhabdostyles as they may occur in poecilosclerids. This species requires reassessment, and we have ignored it entirely
Pione hixoni	(Von Lendenfeld, 1886)	Sydney Harbour, Australia, massive sponge	No other primary records found. CS: The massive sponge was reported from 40 m depth and ‘attached to the sand’ of a subtropical habitat. It was thus not included in our biogeographic analysis
Pione muscoides	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown. Reported from the gastropod Chorus giganteus (as Monoceros fusoides), which occurs along the Chilean coastline	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs. CS: The only other record under this name is likely erroneous, as the spicule dimensions differ (Bergquist 1961, as Cliona muscoides, from New Zealand). Pione muscoides and Pione angelae need to be compared; they have very similar spicule dimensions and may be synonymous
Pione rhabdophora	(Hentschel, 1914)	Cape Verde Islands, in Strombus shell	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Pione robusta	(Old, 1941)	Chesapeake Bay, in oysters	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Pione spirilla	(Old, 1941)	Chesapeake Bay, in oysters	Only known from the east of the USA and from oysters (e.g. Wells 1959, 1961). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Pione stationis	(Nassonow, 1883)	Black Sea, in bivalve shells	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs. CS: The original description is insufficient for comparisons; the type material needs to be re-examined
Scolopes lignea	(Hallmann, 1912)	New South Wales coast, Australia, massive sponge	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Siphonodictyon nodosum	(Hancock, 1849)	Unknown type location, but found in the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, which occurs in the Indo-Pacific	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Spheciospongia albida	(Carter, 1886)	Port Phillip Bay, massive sponge that incorporates sediments	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Spheciospongia alcyonoides	(Hallmann, 1912)	S Queensland, massive sponge	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994); CS: This species is known from the subtropics but has not yet been reported to occur on coral reefs of erode corals and was not counted for the biogeographic analysis
Spheciospongia australis	(Von Lendenfeld, 1888)	Sydney Harbour, Australia, massive sponge	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Spheciospongia massa	(Ridley and Dendy, 1886)	Bass Straits, Australia, massive sponge	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Spheciospongia montiformis	(Hallmann, 1912)	S Queensland, massive sponge	Hooper and Wiedenmayer (1994, as Spirastrella); CS: This species is known from the subtropics but has not yet been reported to occur on coral reefs of erode corals and was not counted for the biogeographic analysis
Spheciospongia poculoides	(Hallmann, 1912)	New South Wales coast, Australia, massive sponge	No other primary records found. Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Spheciospongia robusta	(Carter, 1886)	Port Phillip Bay, South Australia, massive sponge	Only known from South Australia (e.g. Dendy 1897). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs
Thoosa tortonesei	(Sarà, 1958)	Ligurian Sea, Mediterranean	No other primary records found. Reported to erode in calcareous rock, not yet for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs. CS: The spicules pictured by Sarà may suggest that at least part of the sample was contributed by a Cliona viridis-like sponge. They may represent more than one species, and the material needs to be re-examined
Volzia azzaroliae	(Sarà, 1978)	Patagonia, in rock material made of coralline algae	Only known from Patagonia (e.g. Pansini and Sarà 1999, Gappa and Landino 2005). Not yet reported for eroding coral materials or for occurring on coral reefs

Appendix B

Taxonomic list of non-sponge species mentioned in the publication (with the exception of Vaceletia crypta, a hypercalcified sponge that was used by bioeroding sponges as substate). Taxon validities and authorities were verified in the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS Editorial Board).

Context: Bioerosion rates and host organisms (background information for main text and Appendices C and D)
Phylum	Class	Family	Species	Taxon authority	Common name
Mollusca	Bivalvia (Heterodonta)	(Cardioidea) Cardiidae (Tridacninae)	Tridacna gigas	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Giant clam
			Tridacna squamosa	(De Lamarck, 1819)	Fluted giant clam
	Bivalvia (Pteriomorphia)	(Anomioidea) Placunidae	Placuna placenta	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Windowpane oyster
		(Arcoidea) (Glycimerididae)	Tucetona sp.	Iredale, 1931	Bittersweet clam
		(Chamoidea) Chamidae	Chama macerophylla	Gmelin, 1791	Leafy jewelbox
		(Ostreoidea) Ostreidae (Ostreinae)	Ostrea edulis	Linnaeus, 1758	Edible oyster
		(Pectinoidea) Pectinidae (Palliolinae)	Pseudamussium peslutrae	(Linnaeus, 1771)	Seven-rayed scallop
		(Pterioidea) Pteriidae	Pinctada margaritifera	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Black-lip pearl oyster
	Gastropoda (Caenogastropoda)	(Muricoidea) Muricidae (Ocenebrinae)	Chorus giganteus	(Lesson, 1831)	Giant unicorn snail
		(Stromboidea) Strombidae	Lobatus gigas	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Queen conch
		(Tonnoidea) Cassidae	Cassis tuberosa	(Linnaeus, 1758)	King helmet
		(Tonnoidea) Ranellidae (Cymatiinae)	Charonia variegata	(De Lamarck, 1816)	Atlantic triton
	Gastropoda (Vetigastropoda)	(Haliotoidea) Haliotidae	Haliotis cyclobates	Péron and Lesueur, 1816	Whirling abalone
			Haliotis rufescens	Swainson, 1822	Red abalone
Cnidaria	Anthozoa (Hexacorallia)	Acroporidae	Acropora muricata	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Spiny coral
			Acropora palmata	(De Lamarck, 1816)	Elkhorn coral
			Astreopora listeri	Bernard, 1896	Starflower coral
			Montipora digitata	(Dana, 1846)	Pore coral
		Agariciidae	Agaricia agaricites	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Lettuce coral

Cnidaria ctnd.	Anthozoa (Hexacorallia)	Astrocoeniidae	Madracis myriaster	(Milne Edwards and Haime, 185)	Striate finger coral
			Madracis pharensis	(Heller, 1868)	Encrusting star coral
		Caryophylliidae	Desmophyllum dianthus	(Esper, 1794)	Cockscomb cup coral
			Lophelia pertusa	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Spider hazard, cold-water coral, deep-sea coral
		Dendrophylliidae	Dendrophyllia cornigera	(De Lamarck, 1816)	Doe cup coral
			Dendrophyllia ramea	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Branching cup coral
			Leptopsammia pruvoti	Lacaze-Duthiers, 1897	Sunset cup coral
		Meandrinidae	Dichocoenia stokesii	Milne Edwards and Haime, 1848	Pineapple coral
			Meandrina meandrites	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Meander coral
		Merulinidae	Cyphastrea serailia	(Forskål, 1775)	Lesser knob coral
			Dipsastraea pallida	(Dana, 1846)	Knob coral
			Favites halicora	(Ehrenberg, 1834)	Larger star coral
			Goniastrea retiformis	(De Lamarck, 1816)	Lesser star coral
			Orbicella annularis	(Ellis and Solander, 1786)	Caribbean or boulder star coral
		Montastraeidae	Montastraea cavernosa	(Linnaeus, 1767)	Great star coral, false knob coral
		Mussidae	Manicina areolata	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Porous coral
			Pseudodiploria clivosa	(Ellis and Solander, 1786)	Knobby brain coral
			Pseudodiploria strigosa	(Dana, 1846)	Symmetrical brain coral
		Oculinidae	Madrepora oculata	Linnaeus, 1758	Zigzag coral
		Pocilloporidae	Pocillopora verrucosa	(Ellis and Solander, 1786)	Cauliflower coral

Phylum	Class	Family	Species	Taxon authority	Common name
Cnidaria ctnd.	Anthozoa (Hexacorallia)	Poritidae	Goniopora tenuidens	(Quelch, 1886)	Anemone coral
			Porites astreoides	De Lamarck, 1816	Yellow Porites, mustard hill coral
			Porites cylindrica	Dana, 1846	Cylindrical hump coral
			Porites furcata	De Lamarck, 1816	Split hump coral
			Porites lobata	Dana, 1846	Lobate hump coral
			Porites lutea	Milne Edwards and Haime, 1851	Mound coral
			Porites porites	(Pallas, 1766)	Hump coral
			Porites rus	(Forskål, 1775)	Knobbly hump coral
		Siderastreidae	Siderastrea radians	(Pallas, 1766)	Lesser starlet coral
			Siderastrea siderea	(Ellis and Solander, 1768)	Massive starlet coral
			Siderastrea stellata	Verrill, 1868	Starry starlet coral
			Cladocora caespitosa	(Linnaeus, 1767)	Pillow coral
		Scleractinia incertae sedis	Cladocora debilis	Milne Edwards and Haime, 1849	Thin tube coral
	Anthozoa (Octocorallia)	Coralliidae	Corallium elatius	Ridley, 1882	Japanese pink coral
			Corallium johnsoni	Gray, 1860	Johnson’s precious coral
			Corallium rubrum	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Red coral, precious coral
			Paracorallium japonicum	(Kishinouyi, 1903)	Japanese red coral
		Idididae	Isis sp.	Linnaeus, 1758	Bamboo coral
	Hydrozoa	Stylasteridae	Distichopora sp.	De Lamarck, 1816	Lace stick coral
Porifera	Demospongiae (Keratosa)	Verticillitidae	Vaceletia crypta	(Vacelet, 1977)	Cryptic hypercalcified sponge

Context: Spongivory (background information for Appendix E)
Chordata (Vertebrata)	(Tetrapoda) Reptilia	Cheloniidae	Eretmochelys imbricata	(Linnaeus, 1766)	Hawksbill turtle
	(Pisces) Actinopterygii	Acanthuridae	Acanthurus coeruleus	Bloch and Schneider, 1801	Blue tang surgeonfish
			Acanthurus pyroferus	Kittlitz, 1834	Chocolate surgeonfish
		Chaetodontidae	Chaetodon kleinii	Bloch, 1790	Sunburst butterflyfish
			Chaetodon vagabundus	Linnaeus, 1758	Vagabond butterflyfish
		Zanclidae	Zanclus cornutus	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Moorish idol
		Pomacentridae	Stegastes partitus	(Poey, 1868)	Bicolour damselfish
			Stegastes planifrons	(Cuvier, 1830)	Threespot damselfish
		Scaridae	Chlorurus microrhinos	(Bleeker, 1854)	Blunt-head parrotfish
			Scarus coelestinus	Valenciennes, 1840	Midnight parrotfish
			Scarus iseri	(Bloch, 1789)	Striped parrotfish
			Sparisoma viride	(Bonnaterre, 1788)	Stoplight parrotfish
	(Pisces) Coelacanthi	Pomacanthidae	Holacanthus ciliaris	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Queen angelfish
			Holacanthus passer	Valenciennes, 1846	King angelfish
			Holacanthus tricolor	(Bloch, 1795)	Rock beauty
			Pomacanthus arcuatus	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Gray angelfish
			Pomacanthus paru	(Bloch, 1787)	French angelfish
			Pomacanthus zonipectus	(Gill, 1862)	Cortez angelfish
Echinodermata (Asterozoa)	Asteroidea	Oreasteridae	Oreaster reticulatus	(Linnaeus, 1758)	Red cushion sea star, West Indian sea star
	Ophiuroidea	Ophiotrichidae	Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) angulata	(Say, 1825)	Angular brittle star
Echinodermata (Echinozoa)	Echinoidea (Cidaroidea)	(Cidaroidea) Cidaridae	Eucidaris tribuloide	(De Lamarck, 1816)	Slate pencil urchin
	Echinoidea (Euechinoidea)	Arbaciidae	Arbacia punctulata	(De Lamarck, 1816)	Purple-spined sea urchin
		Toxopneustidae	Lytechinus variegatus	(De Lamarck, 1816)	Variegated sea urchin, green urchin
Arthropoda (Crustacea)	(Multicrustacea) (Copepoda)	Asterocheridae	Asterocheres suberitis	Giesbrecht, 1879	Suberites copepod

Arthropoda (Crustacea) ctnd.	(Multicrustacea) Malacostraca (Eumalacostraca)	(Alpheoidea) Alpheidae	Alpheus heterochaelis	Say, 1818	Bigclaw snapping shrimp
		(Eriphioidea) Menippidae	Menippe mercenaria	(Say, 1818)	Southern or Florida stone crab
		(Palaemonoidea) Palaemonidae (Palaemoninae)	Palaemonetes vulgaris	(Say, 1818)	Marsh grass shrimp
		(Pilumnoidea) Pilumnidae (Pilumninae)	Pilumnus sayi	Rathbun, 1897	Spineback hairy crab
		(Sphaeromatoidea) Sphaeromatidae	Paracerceis caudata	(Richardson, 1899)	Tailed isopod
		(Xanthoidea) Panopeidae (Panopeninae)	Dyspanopeus sayi	(Smith, 1869)	Say’s mud crab
			Panopeus herbstii	Milne Edwards, 1834	Atlantic mud crab
Annelida	Polychaeta	Syllidae	Branchiosyllis oculata	Ehlers, 1887	Eyed gillworm
Mollusca	Gastropoda (Caenogastropoda)	(Triphoroidea) Cerithiopsidae	Seila adamsi	(Lea, 1845)	Adam’s cerith snail
	Gastropoda (Heterobranchia)	(Doridoidea) Chromodorididae	Doriprismatica sedna	(Marcus and Marcus, 1967)	Sedna prism nudibranch
			Felimare agassizii	(Bergh, 1894)	Agassizi’s coloured nudibranch
		(Doridoidea) Discodorididae	Platydoris argo	(Linnaeus, 1767)	Doris argo nudibranch
		(Phyllidioidea) Dendrodorididae	Doriopsilla albopunctata	(Cooper, 1863)	Whitespot Doris nudibranch
			Doriopsilla pharpa	Marcus, 1961	Lemon drop nudibranch
	Gastropoda (Vetigastropoda)	(Fissurelloidea) Fissurellidae (Diodorinae)	Diodora cayenensis	(De Lamarck, 1822)	Cayenne keyhole limpet

Appendix C

Published sponge bioerosion rates with reference to substrate types. For separate sponge species, we aimed to use data that had the same units or could be converted to match other published data (e.g. we looked for rates over time with reference to sponge tissue area or to reef area). Values for all sponges together may not be as easily related to each other, and caution is advisable when comparing these data. Data from settlement block experiments were not included, because in this context, they are not as meaningful and incur a high risk of variation or bias due to attachment mode and duration of exposure. Some means were hierarchically calculated to weigh data according to the subgrouping in the respective study (see Appendix D). Specific gravity of bulk densities refers to water at 4 °C, and references for material densities are referenced by highset numbers and citations at the bottom of the table. Part of the data displayed below were used for Fig. 7.7 (used only for zooxanthellate β-morphology sponges eroding biological skeleton or pure calcite, but excluding building materials such as limestone). GBR Great Barrier Reef. Bioeroding sponge morphologies are α papillate-endolithic, β encrusting-endolithic, γ free-living, δ endopsammic (for explanations, see main text or Schönberg et al. 2017). Further taxon information can be found in Appendix A (for bioeroding sponges) and in Appendix B (for non-sponge taxa).

Species, morphology	Location	Substrate material	Specific gravity	% substrate removed	Annual bioerosion [kg] per m2 sponge tissue	Annual bioerosion per m2 reef area	References
Photosymbiotic spp. (Percentages refer to the area of full sponge penetration only.)
Cliona albimarginata, β	N Sulawesi	Prun limestone	2.61, 19		2.9		Calcinai et al. (2007a)
		Vicenza limestone	21, 1.919		11.0
		Conero majolica	2.81		12.6
		Coral: Acropora sp.	2.31, 2.97		15.6
		Clam shell: Hippopus sp.	2.71, 2.917		24.0
		Finale calcarenite	2.01, 19		24.2
		Carrara marble	2.71, 19		29.5
		Mean across substrates	1.9–2.9		17.1
Cliona aprica, α	Caribbean	Conch shells: Lobatus gigas		Ca. 50	7.0		Rützler (1975, snail as Strombus)
Cliona caribbaea, β	Grand Cayman	Coral (unspecified)	1.71	20.0	8.0*	0.4	Acker and Risk (1985)
Cliona flavifodina, α	Mexican Pacific	Coral: Pocillopora verrucosa	2.82		0.5		Nava and Carballo (2008)
Cliona orientalis, β	Central GBR	Mollusc shell: bivalve?	2.61	71.9			Bergman (1983)
		Coral: coral rubble	2.61	53.5
		Mollusc shell: cockscomb oyster	2.61	55.0
		Coral (unspecified)	1.21	47.0
		Mollusc shell: cockscomb oyster	1.91	24.6
		Coral (unspecified)	2.41	49.2
		Coral (unspecified)	2.31	49.1
		Coral (unspecified)	2.21	48.2
		Coral (unspecified)	1.21	7.4
		Coral (unspecified)	1.71	39.7
		Coral (unspecified)	1.21	15.8
		Coral (unspecified)	1.61	23.4
		Coral (unspecified)	2.01	42.2
		Coral (unspecified)	1.71	28.8
		Coral (unspecified)	2.11	36.1
		Coral (unspecified)	1.91	39.8
		Coral (unspecified)	1.61	29.9
		Coral (unspecified)	1.61	34.1
		Mean across all substrates	1.2–2.6	38.6
Cliona orientalis, β	Central GBR	Coral: Astreopora listeri	1.31		3.4		Schönberg (2002c, Dipsastrea as Favia)
		Coral: Goniopora tenuidens	1.21		6.7
		Coral: Favites halicora	1.41		6.8
		Coral: Cyphastrea serailia	1.51		7.1
		Coral: Dipsastraea pallida	1.61, 1.46		9.6
		Coral: massive Porites	1.61, 1.214		9.7
		Coral: Goniastrea retiformis	2.01, 1.76		10.3
		Clam shell: Tridacna squamosa	2.81		17.6
		Mean across substrates	1.2–2.0		8.9
Cliona orientalis, β	Central GBR	Mineral: Iceland spar	2.719	51.6 (central) 57.7 (marginal)			Schönberg and Shields (2008)
Cliona orientalis, β	Central GBR	Coral: massive Porites	1.61, 1.214		2.2		Wisshak et al. (2012)
Cliona orientalis, β	Southern GBR	Coral: massive Porites	1.61, 1.214		2.5		Fang et al. (2013b)
Cliona orientalis, β	S Queensland	Coral: Goniastraea sp.	2.01, 1.76 (for G. retiformis)		6.1		Holmes et al. (2009)
Cliona varians, γ	Florida Keys	Calcite material	NA, ca. 2.5		22.8		Hill (1996, as Anthosigmella)
?Pione mussae, β	Aqaba	Reef rock	NA		0.3 (2.6?)***		Zundelevich et al. (2007)
? – The predominant Red Sea Pione species has occasionally been reported to be photosynthetic (Beer and Ilan 1998; Steindler et al. 2001, both as Cliona vastifica), but it is not a typical species to contain dinoflagellate zooxanthellae
Heterotrophic spp. (Percentages refer to the area of full sponge penetration only.)
Cliona cf. celata, α	Bahía, Brazil	Coral: Siderastrea stellata	1.81, 1.3–1.55			1.0	Reis and Leão (2000)
Cliona aff. celata, α	Central GBR	Mineral: Iceland spar	2.719	90.7 (central) 79.1 (marginal)			Schönberg and Shields (2008)
Cliona delitrix, α-β	Grand Cayman	Coral: Montastraea cavernosa	1.71	53.0			Rose and Risk (1985)
		Coral: Porites astreoides	1.31, 1.418	47.0
		Mean across substrates	1.3–1.7	50.0
Cliona peponaca, α	Curaçao	Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.7–2.16, 1.89, 1.418		2.5–3.3**		Bak (1976, Orbicella as Montastrea)
Cliona vermifera, α	Mexican Pacific	Coral: Pocillopora verrucosa	2.82		1.2		Bautista-Guerrero et al. (2014)
Clionaid sp. undet. (Pione lampa?)	Belize	Bivalve shells: Chama macerophylla	NA, >2.5	Ca. 50	1.7–4.4		Rützler (1975)
Pione lampa, β	Bermuda	Porous dolomite	2.83 or <		2.9		Neumann (1966)
	Bermuda	Dense aragonite	2.93		4.0–15.0
Pione lampa, β	Bermuda	Iceland spar	2.720		6.6–14.2		Rützler (1975)
	Bermuda	Dense calcite	2.73		18.9–23.8
Entire guild of bioeroding sponges (Please note! Values below refer to the entire coral or to reef area studied and are thus these are different values than the above percentages, even if in the same column.)
All sponge bioerosion	Bermuda	Different materials, mostly reef framework	NA			0.26, or 3.0 where sponges dense	Rützler (1975)
All sponge bioerosion	Florida Keys	Coral: Dichocoenia stokesii	2.09	8.5			Hein and Risk (1975, Pseudodiploria as Dodiploria, Orbicella as Montastrea)****
		Coral: Pseudodiploria strigosa	1.210	7.3
		Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.7–2.16, 1.89, 1.418	3.5, 11.6
		Coral: Manicina areolata	NA	2.8
		Coral: Siderastrea radians	1.81, 1.3–1.55 (for S. stellata)	33.4, 31.7
		Coral: all massive corals		12.3
All sponge bioerosion	Veracruz	Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.31	1.3			Hernández-Ballesteros et al. (2013, Orbicella as Montastraea)
		Coral: Porites astreoides	1.41	2.7
		Mean across all substrates	1.3–1.4	2.0
All sponge bioerosion	Yucatán	Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.41	3.6			Hernández-Ballesteros et al. (2013, Orbicella as Montastraea)
		Coral: Porites astreoides	1.61	6.7
		Mean across all substrates	1.4–1.6	5.2
All sponge bioerosion	Yucatán	Coral: different species	NA	16.4 per reef area			Hepburn et al. (2006)
All sponge bioerosion	Belize	Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.88	7.4			Highsmith et al. (1983)
		Coral: Montastraea cavernosa	1.61	4.6
		Coral: Porites astreoides	1.51	4.1
		Mean across substrates	1.5–1.8	5.4
All sponge bioerosion	St. Thomas	Rubble, unspecified	NA	47.0–88.5			Weinstein et al. (2014)
All sponge bioerosion	St. Croix	Coral cores: Acropora palmata	1.916	41.3 (41.1–41.4)		0.22 (0.21–0.23)	Moore and Shedd (1977)
		Coral cores: Millepora sp.	2.313	31.5 (31.0–32.0)		5.23 (1.2–3.5)
		Mean across all substrates	1.9–2.3	36.4		0.37
All sponge bioerosion	Barbados	Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.7–2.16, 1.89, 1.418	9.4–11.6			MacGeachy (1977, Orbicella as Montastrea)
		Coral: Porites astreoides	1.418	3.3–6.2
		Coral Siderastrea siderea	1.618	1.3–7.8
		Mean across all substrates	1.4–1.8			0.28
All sponge bioerosion	Barbados	Rubble, unspecified	NA	24.0–41.0			Holmes (2000)
All sponge bioerosion	Barbados	Coral: Agaricia agaricites	1.918			0.35	Stearn and Scoffin (1977, Orbicella as Montastraea)*****
		Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.7–2.16, 1.89, 1.418			0.35
		Coral: Porites astreoides	1.418			0.14
		Coral Siderastrea siderea	1.618			0.07
		Mean across all substrates	1.4–1.9			0.23
All sponge bioerosion	Barbados	Coralline algae	0.5–0.711			0.47	Scoffin et al. 1980, Orbicella as Montastraea)*****
		Coral: Agaricia agaricites	1.917			0.29
		Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.7–2.16, 1.89, 1.418			0.44
		Coral: Porites astreoides	1.418			0.19
		Coral: Porites porites	1.218			0.18
		Coral Siderastrea siderea	1.617			0.09
		Mean across all substrates	0.5–1.9			0.28
All sponge bioerosion	Curaçao	Coral: Orbicella annularis	1.7–2.16, 1.89, 1.418	2.4			Bak (1976, Orbicella as Montastrea)
		Coral: Meandrina meandrites	1.910	1.7
		Mean across substrates	1.4–2.1	2.1
All sponge bioerosion	Bonaire	Different coral spp. dominating	NA			0.04	Perry et al. (2012, Orbicella as Montastraea, Madracis myriaster as Madracis mirabilis; sponge bioerosion rates were estimated by using values from other oceans and species, partly not congeneric; development of the algorithm remains unclear as some of the cited works did not provide data for sponge tissue area—Scoffin et al. 1980—or did not separate sponge bioerosion from macroboring—Chazottes et al. 1995.)
		Mean across all substrates at non-diving sites, dominated by Orbicella annularis and Madracis myriaster	O. a nnularis: 1.7–2.16, 1.88, 1.418 M. m yriaster: 1.64			0.02
		Mean across all substrates				0.03
All sponge bioerosion	Red Sea	Coral: Porites sp.	NA	1.0			Klein et al. (1991)
All sponge bioerosion	Kenya	Branching coral: Porites cylindrica, Porites rus, Montipora digitata				0.10–0.15 (fished and unfished)	Carreiro-Silva and McClanahan (2012, Montipora digitata as Porites palmata)
All sponge bioerosion	Maldives	Coral rubble	NA			0.03	Morgan (2014)
All sponge bioerosion	South China Sea	Coral: Porites lutea	1.66	3.7			Chen et al. (2013)
All sponge bioerosion	Indonesia	Coral: Porites lobata	1.412	2.8			Holmes et al. (2000)
All sponge bioerosion	Central GBR	Coral: Porites lobata	1.412	1.8			Sammarco and Risk (1990)
All sponge bioerosion	Central GBR	Coral: Acropora muricata	2.66	Ca. 0.5–3.0			Risk et al. (1995, as Acropora formosa)
All sponge bioerosion	Central GBR	Massive Porites sp.	Likely 1.4–1.6, see above	2.2			Schönberg et al. (1997)
All sponge bioerosion	Enewetak	Coral: Goniastraea retiformis	1.71, 2.015	6.0			Highsmith (1981a, Dipsastraea as Favia, Orbicella as Montastrea)
		Coral: Porites lutea	1.41	2.0
		Coral: Dipsastraea pallida	1.41, 1.615	0.9
		Rubble	NA	3.8

References for material densities: ¹Same reference as listed on the right. ²Al-Sofyani and Floos (2013), ³Barthelmy (1997–2014), ⁴Bruggemann et al. (1994), ⁵Carricart-Ganivet et al. (2013), ⁶Coraltraits (2016), ⁷Dunn et al. (2012), ⁸Dunstan (1975), ⁹Highsmith (1981b), ¹⁰Mallela (2004), ¹¹McCoy (2013) for Pseudolithophyllum, ¹²Morgan and Kench (2012). ¹³Odum and Odum (1955), ¹⁴Risk and Sammarco (1991), ¹⁵Schönberg (2002b), ¹⁶Schuhmacher and Plewka (1981), ¹⁷Sowa et al. (2014), ¹⁸Stearn et al. (1977), ¹⁹StoneContact (2016), ²⁰Wikipedia (2016b). *Acker and Risk (1985) calculated their value by using average growth rates and average sponge areas, and while the value was obtained by a different method than used by the other authors, the value aligns well (Fig. 7.7). **Bak (1976) did not state whether the areal reference for his bioerosion rates was sponge surface area or block area. In the latter case, the values would be meaningless, and it is here assumed that the reference is the sponge surface area. ***Zundelevich et al.’s (2007) total bioerosion rate was calculated by adding together their measures for chemical and mechanical bioerosion. However, they estimated mechanical bioerosion by quantifying the resulting sediment, which is likely an inaccurate method (see Discussion in Fang et al. 2013a; Schönberg et al. 2017). Chemical sponge bioerosion has previously been determined as being closer to 10% (Wisshak et al. 2013; Schönberg et al. 2017), which would mean that Zundelevich’s total bioerosion rates for P. mussae may have been around 2.6 kg m⁻² yr.⁻¹ instead of 0.3, a value which would be more similar to other published bioerosion rates for this genus. ****Hein and Risk’s (1975) values per coral species are all based on only one or two specimens. Their bioerosion rates were given as mm³ yr.⁻¹, without reference to area. Therefore, the values could not be recalculated as standardised data. *****The sponge bioerosion rates from Stearn and Scoffin (1977) and Scoffin et al. (1980) were calculated by using their average contribution of sponges to total macroboring of 92%.

Appendix D

Proportional contributions of sponge, worm, mollusc and other bioerosion to total macroboring. Means were calculated hierarchical, e.g. first within a given study, then across studies, then across ocean, as outlined below. Where the published total did not exactly match the sum of the partial bioerosion, we set the sum of the partial bioerosion values to 100%. Taxonomic information for non-sponge taxa that form the substrate for bioeroding sponges can be found in Appendix B. Data were used for Figs. 7.5 and 7.8. A selection of data of block settlement experiments was here included, because by calculating values into %, they were all relative and thus comparable. However, block data were only used after a minimum of 1 year of exposure.

Ocean	Location	Substrate	Proportion of macrobioerosion [mean % of total]				References
			Sponges	‘Worms’	Molluscs	Others
W Atlantic 1	Florida Keys	Dichocoenia stokesii	70.7	19.6	9.7	NA	Hein and Risk (1975, Orbicella as Montastrea, Pseudodiploria as Diploria). Data were calculated from their Table 1
		Orbicella annularis	36.0	62.5	1.5	NA
		Pseudodiploria strigosa	31.5	34.0	34.5	NA
		Pseudodiploria clivosa	0.0	12.9	87.1	NA
		Manicina areolata	18.4	81.6	0.0	NA
		Siderastrea radians	66.7	29.7	3.6	NA
	Means Florida Keys across substrates		37.2	40.1	22.7	NA
W Atlantic 2	Bahamas	Orbicella annularis	X-ray: 79.3	X-ray: 16.0	X-ray: 3.6	X-ray: 1.1	Becker and Reaka-Kudla (1997, Orbicella as Montastrea). Calculated from their Table 1. The paper compared X-ray and CAT scan
			CAT: 75.1	CAT: 19.9	CAT: 5.0	CAT: 0.0
	Means Bahamas across different methods		Mean: 77.2	Mean: 17.9	Mean: 4.3	Mean: 0.6
	Jamaica 1, 1–30 m	Dead corals and rubble	81.5	15.9	2.5	0.1	Perry (1998). Calculated from his Table 3
W Atlantic 3	Jamaica 2, 0–8 m	Different coral spp.	84.4	11.8	2.4	1.4	Macdonald and Perry (2003). Calculated from their Table 3
	8–16 m		77.3	8.0	14.4	0.3
	16–25 m		71.1	6.4	20.4	2.1
	Means Jamaica 2, across depths		77.6	8.7	12.4	1.3
	Means across Jamaica 1–2		79.6	12.3	7.4	0.7
W Atlantic 4	St. Thomas (mesophotic)	Coral rubble	73.4	7.9	14.5	4.2	Weinstein et al. (2014). Data were read off their Fig. 4, lowest part
	Barbados	Orbicella annularis, 0–15 m	95.7*	1.8*	0.3	2.2	MacGeachy and Stearn (1976, Orbicella as Montastrea). Data were calculated from their Table 7.2. *The value for sponges includes bioerosion from spionids and should be smaller; the one for worms should be larger
W Atlantic 5	Barbados	Orbicella annularis, 0–15 m	92.0	1.4	0.0	6.6	Scoffin et al. 1980, Orbicella as Montastrea). Data were calculated from their p. 486. Data are part of the above study. These values are only for the part of the study in which worms were common. As they accounted for <3% of macroboring, they were ignored at the other sites, which were part of the studies for MacGeachy and Stearn (1976)
	Means Barbados across studies		93.9	1.6	0.1	4.4
W Atlantic 6	Veracruz Reefs	Orbicella annularis	79.3	5.3	12.4	3.0	Hernández-Ballesteros et al. (2013, Orbicella as Montastrea). Data were calculated from their Table 1
		Porites astreoides	73.7	20.7	5.6	0.0
	Means Veracruz across different substrates		76.5	13.0	9.0	1.5
W Atlantic 7	Puerto Morelos, N Yucatán	Coral rubble	76.2	4.9	18.2	0.7	Hepburn et al. (2006). Data were read off their Fig. 3
	S Yucatán	Orbicella annularis	94.5	0.5	4.2	0.8	Hernández-Ballesteros et al. (2013, Orbicella as Montastrea). Data were calculated from their Table 1
		Porites astreoides	89.8	6.2	4.0	0.0
	Means S Yucatán across different substrates		92.1	3.4	4.1	0.4
	Means Yucatán across N and S		84.1	4.2	11.2	0.5
W Atlantic 8	Belize, 2–7 m	Orbicella annularis	93.8	2.3	2.2	1.7	Highsmith et al. (1983, Orbicella as Montastrea). Data were calculated from their Table 2. Where the sum of their percentages did not reach 100%, values were recalculated so that it did
		Montastrea cavernosa	91.0	3.0	3.5	2.5
		Porites astreoides	84.0	16.0	0.0	0.0
	Means Belize across different substrates		89.6	7.1	1.9	1.4
W Atlantic 9	Bahía, Brazil	Siderastrea stellata	35.0	15.0	50.0	0.0	Reis and Leão (2000). Data were read off their Fig. 2
Means W Atlantic 1–9			71.8	13.2	13.5	1.5
Indian Ocean 1	Red Sea	Porites spp.	23.9	41.3	19.2	15.6	Klein et al. (1991). Data were calculated from their Table 1. Only their recent material was considered, not the fossil substrate
(Indian Ocean)	Persian Gulf	Dead corals	(2.2)	(27.4)	(46.9)	(23.5)	Jafari et al. (2016). It seems that the authors included embedding barnacles as bioeroders (?), and perhaps sponge bioerosion is underestimated? The values are here displayed, but not used in the overall calculations
			Without barnacles:
			(2.8)	(35.8)	(61.3)	(NA)
Indian Ocean 2	Kenya fished	Branching coral: Porites cylindrica, Porites rus, Montipora digitata – 6 years after coral death	47.4	44.3	8.4	NA	Carreiro-Silva and McClanahan (2012, Montipora digitata as Porites palmata). Data were calculated from their App. 1
	Kenya unfished		58.4	33.4	8.1	NA
	Means Kenya		52.9	38.9	8.2	NA
	Maldives 1 at 5 m	Porites sp. (blocks – 14-month exposure)	62.4	28.5	9.1	NA	Zahir (2002) Data were read off his Fig. 3
	Maldives 1 at 10 m		23.6	48.7	27.7	NA
	Means Maldives 1		43.0	38.6	18.4	NA
Indian Ocean 3	Maldives 2 lagoon	Acropora rubble	74.1	22.2	3.7	NA	Morgan (2014). Data were read off his Fig. 4.5.
	Maldives 2 inner reef		51.2	29.1	19.7	NA
	Maldives 2 outer reef		32.0	37.7	30.3	NA
	Means Maldives 2		52.4	29.7	17.9	NA
	Means Maldives across 1–2		47.7	34.2	18.1	NA
Means Indian Ocean 1–3			41.5	38.1	15.2	5.2
W Pacific 1	Daya Bay, South China Sea	Porites lutea	38.3	5.7	48.0	8.0	Chen et al. (2013). Data were calculated from their Fig. 3
W Pacific 2	Lizard Island, northern GBR 1, windward	Porites lutea (blocks – 5-year exposure, at 1–20 m)	33.3	39.4	27.3	NA	Kiene and Hutchings (1994). Data were read off their Fig. 3. The eight sites were grouped by us, so that leeward sites included the channel and leeward slope and deep sites
	Flat and lagoon		10.2	86.2	3.6	NA
	Leeward sites		66.1	26.5	7.4	NA
	Means northern GBR 1		36.5	50.7	12.8	NA
	Northern GBR 2, two inshore sites	Massive Porites (blocks – 4-year exposure, at 7–10 m)	35.8	34.6	29.6	NA	Hutchings et al. (2005). Data were read off their Fig. 7.3. The sites for this and the following two studies were inshore sites, Snapper Island and Low Isles; midshelf site, Lizard Island; reef edge sites, Harrier Reef and Ribbon Reef 3; and an oceanic site, Osprey Reef
	One midshelf site		11.7	71.6	16.7	NA
	Two reef edge sites			18.1	44.7	37.2		NA
	One oceanic site		18.4	75.8	5.8	NA
	Means northern GBR 2		21.0	56.7	22.3	NA
	Northern GBR 3, two inshore sites	Massive Porites (blocks – 4-year exposure, at 7–10 m)	41.7	26.7	31.6	NA	Osorno et al. (2005). Data were calculated from their Table 1
	One midshelf site		21.9	63.3	14.9	NA
	Two reef edge sites		17.2	45.9	36.9	NA
	One oceanic site		18.8	72.4	8.8	NA
	Means northern GBR 3		24.9	52.1	23.0	NA
	Northern GBR 4, two inshore sites	Massive Porites (blocks – 3-year exposure)	35.6	32.0	32.4	NA	Tribollet and Golubic (2005). Data were calculated from their Table 3
	One midshelf site		20.1	74.8	5.1	NA
	Two offshore sites		15.8	58.2	26.0	NA
	One oceanic site		18.0	69.1	12.9	NA
	Means northern GBR 4		22.4	58.5	19.1	NA
	Means northern GBR across studies 1–4		23.9	53.2	22.9	NA	Averaged by distance from shore first, then across studies
	Central GBR, One inshore site	Porites lobata, from 7–9 m	22.6	24.8	52.6	NA	Sammarco and Risk (1990). Data were calculated from their Table 3. The sites were inshore, Orpheus Island; midshelf, Britomart, Rib and Davies Reef; and offshore, Myrmidon Reef
	Three midshelf sites		58.3	26.7	15.0	NA
	One offshore site		38.7	54.6	6.7	NA
	Means central GBR for Porites 1		39.9	35.4	24.7	NA
	Central GBR, one inshore site	Massive Porites	20.4	4.1	75.5	NA	Schönberg et al. (1997). Data were read off their Fig. 1. ‘Worms’ included ‘other’ bioerosion. The sites were inshore, Pandora Reef; midshelf, Rib Reef; and offshore, Myrmidon Reef
	One midshelf site		68.5	14.8	16.7	NA
	One offshore site		57.7	19.2	23.1	NA
	Means central GBR for Porites 2		48.9	12.7	38.4	NA
	Means central GBR for Porites across studies 1–2		44.4	24.0	31.6	NA
	Central GBR, Two inshore sites	Acropora muricata, at 6–8 m	77.8	12.0	6.2	4.0	Risk et al. (1995, as Acropora formosa). Data were calculated from their Table 3
	Three midshelf sites		69.7	15.5	11.5	3.3
	One offshore site		48.0	42.5	7.5	2.0
	Means central GBR for Acropora		65.2	23.3	8.4	3.1
	Means central GBR across substrates		54.8	23.7	20.0	1.5
	Means across GBR		39.5	38.5	21.4	0.7
Western Pacific 3	Java Sea, low resuspension	Coral: Porites lobata	54.1	27.4	8.1	10.4	Holmes et al. (2000). Data were read off their Figs. 1 and 4. Data were grouped by us with respect to resuspension levels
	Ambon, low resuspension		57.0	24.9	15.1	3.0
	Means low resuspension		55.6	26.1	11.6	6.7
	Java Sea, high resuspension		Coral: Porites lobata	46.6	18.6	12.1		22.7
	Means Indonesia across suspension levels		51.1	22.3	11.9	14.7
Means Western Pacific 1–3			43.0	22.1	27.1	7.8
Central Pacific 1	Enewetak, 0–30 m	Goniastrea retiformis	76.1	1.3	4.0	18.6	Highsmith (1981b). Data were calculated from his Table 5
		Porites lutea	82.3	10.9	1.5	5.3
		Dipsastraea pallida	75.0	25.0	0.0	0.0
		Rubble	69.8	15.4	3.7	11.1
	Means Enewetak across substrates		75.8	13.2	2.3	8.7
Central Pacific 2	Moorea and Tahiti	Porites lutea (blocks – 5-year exposure)	42.9	36.3	20.8	NA	Pari et al. (2002). Data were read off their Fig. 3
	Polynesia atolls		72.8	26.7	0.5	NA
	Means French Polynesia across sites		57.9	31.5	10.6	NA
Means Central Pacific 1–2			66.9	22.4	6.4	4.3
Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP)		Porites lobata	11.9	0.0	88.1	0.0	Carballo unpubl. data (2017)
Means Pacific			40.6	14.8	40.5	4.1
Means World			51.3	22.0	23.1	3.6

Appendix E

Spongivorous organisms feeding on bioeroding sponges (see also Fig. 7.6). Only examples of feeding directly on the sponges are here reported; experiments using sponge-extract infused artificial pellets are not listed. Taxonomic information can be found in Appendix A (for bioeroding sponges) and in Appendix B (for non-sponge taxa).

Sponge species	Predator species	Location	Observation	Reference
Cervicornia cuspidifera	Sea star, Oreaster reticulatus	San Blas, Caribbean	The sea star fed on the sponge in a feeding choice experiment	Wulff (1995)
Cliona albimarginata	Parrotfish, Bolbometopon sp.	N Sulawesi	The fish feeding on the sponge	Calcinai et al. (2005)
Cliona ampliclavata	Nudibranch, Doriprismatica sedna	Mexican Pacific	The nudibranch consumed C. ampliclavata	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010, as Glossodoris sedna)
Cliona californiana	Nudibranchs, Doriprismatica sedna and Felimare agassizii	Mexican Pacific	The nudibranchs consumed C. californiana	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010, as Glossodoris sedna and Hypselodoris agassizii)
Cliona caribbaea	Parrotfishes, wrasses, surgeonfishes	Caribbean	Evidenced by occasional bite marks	Acker and Risk (1985)
Cliona cf. celata	Nudibranch, Doriopsilla albopunctata	California?	From the literature	Bloom (1976)
Cliona cf. celata	Keyhole limpet, Diodora cayenensis, cerithid snail, Seila adamsi, isopod, Paracerceis caudata, snapping shrimp, Alpheus heterochaelis, grass shrimp, Palaemonetes vulgaris, brachyurid crabs, Menippe mercenaria, and Pilumnus sayi, xanthid crabs, Panopeus herbstii, and Dyspanopeus sayi, urchins, Arbacia punctulata and Lytechinus variegatus, and possibly the brittle star Ophiothrix (Ophiothrix) angulata	N Carolina	Feeding experiments with starved potential predators using undisturbed C. cf. celata specimens and specimens of which the endosome was exposed revealed that many organisms will feed on that sponge, depending on access	Guida (1976, as Cilicaea cordata and Neopanope sayi)
Cliona cf. celata	Nudibranch, Doriopsilla pharpa	S Carolina	Faeces and laboratory observations confirmed that the nudibranch fed on C. cf. celata but less during winter when C. celata cf. retracted	Eyster and Stancyk (1981)
	Snapping shrimp, Alpheus heterochaelis	S Carolina	The shrimp consumed the nudibranch and C. cf. celata papillae
Cliona euryphylle	Angelfishes, Holacanthus passer and Pomacanthus zonipectus	Mexican Pacific	The fishes consumed C. euryphylle	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010)
Cliona flavifodina	Nudibranch, Doriprismatica sedna	Mexican Pacific	The nudibranch consumed C. flavifodina	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010, as Glossodoris sedna)
Cliona orientalis	Parrotfish, Chlorurus microrhinos	Central Great Barrier Reef	C. orientalis was observed with occasional parrotfish bite marks	Schönberg et al. (2017)
Cliona papillae	Angelfishes, Holacanthus passer, Pomacanthus zonipectus and the nudibranchs, Doriprismatica sedna and Felimare agassizii	Mexican Pacific	The fishes and the nudibranchs consumed C. papillae	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010, as Glossodoris sedna and Hypselodoris agassizii)
Cliona tenuis	Parrotfishes, Scarus iseri, Scarus coelestinus and Sparisoma viride; damselfishes, Stegastes planifrons and Stegastes partitus and the surgeonfish Acanthurus coeruleus	Belize, Caribbean	The fishes were observed to feed on C. tenuis, and bite frequency decreased in listed sequence	González-Rivero et al. (2012)
Cliona varians	Sea star, Oreaster reticulatus	San Blas, Caribbean	The sea star fed on the sponge in the field and in a feeding choice experiment	Wulff (1995, as Anthosigmella varians)
Cliona varians	Angelfish, Pomacanthus paru	Caribbean	Gut content analysis confirmed that the fishes ate C. varians	Randall and Hartman (1968, as Anthosigmella varians)
Cliona varians	Angelfishes, Pomacanthus arcuatus and Pomacanthus paru	US Virgin Islands, Caribbean	The fishes consumed C. varians	Hourigan et al. (1989)
Cliona varians	Angelfish, Pomacanthus arcuatus	Florida Keys	Uncaged C. varians exhibited bite marks	Hill (1998)
Cliona varians	Angelfishes, Holacanthus ciliaris, Pomacanthus arcuatus and Pomacanthus paru, hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricate (It is not clear, however, which of these, or all, targeted the sponge.)	Florida Keys	Uncaged branching C. varians morphs were eaten and lost their branches	Hill and Hill (2002, as Anthosigmella varians)
Cliona varians	Angelfish, Pomacanthus paru	Brazil	C. varians was consumed by the angelfish, as evidenced by gut content	Batista et al. (2012)
Cliona viridis	Copepod, Asterocheres suberitis	W Mediterranean	Copepod behaviour was studied with videography	Mariani and Uriz (2001)
Cliothosa aurivillii	Copepod, Tisbe sp.	Central Great Barrier Reef	C. aurivillii became infested with copepods that produced faeces in the colour of the sponge	Schönberg and Wisshak (2012)
Cliona sp.	Angelfishes, Holacanthus tricolor, Pomacanthus arcuatus and Pomacanthus paru	US Virgin Islands, Caribbean	The fishes consumed Cliona sp.	Hourigan et al. (1989)
Cliona sp. or spp.	Sea star, Oreaster reticulatus	San Blas, Caribbean	The sea star fed on Cliona sp. in the field and in a feeding choice experiment	Wulff (1995)
Cliona spp.	Sea urchin, Eucidaris tribuloides	Bahía, Brazil	Spicules found in the urchin guts showed that it fed on clionaid sponges	Santos et al. (2002)
Cliona sp.	Angelfishes, Holacanthus passer and Pomacanthus zonipectus	Mexican Pacific	The fishes consumed Cliona sp.	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010)
Unidentified clionaid	Angelfish, Pomacanthus paru	Brazil	The clionaid was consumed by the angelfish, as evidenced by gut content	Batista et al. (2012)
Pione carpenteri	Angelfish, Holacanthus passer, and the nudibranch, Doriprismatica sedna	Mexican Pacific	The fish and the nudibranch consumed P. carpenteri	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010, as Cliona mazatlanensis)
Pione mazatlanensis	Angelfish, Holacanthus passer, and the nudibranchs, Doriprismatica sedna and Felimare agassizii	Mexican Pacific	The fish and the nudibranch consumed P. mazatlanensis	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010, as Cliona mazatlanensis, Glossodoris sedna and Hypselodoris agassizii)
Pione vastifica	Nudibranch, Platydoris argo	Strait of Gibraltar	Gut contents were studied to find that the nudibranch fed on P. vastifica	Megina et al. (2002, as Cliona vastifica)
Spheciospongia vagabunda	Wrasse, puffer fish and the hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata?	Papua New Guinea	Sponges were found with feeding damage and rejected fragments strewn near them. Predators were tentatively identified from the form of the feeding scars	Kelly (1986, as Spirastrella vagabunda)
Spheciospongia vesparium	Angelfishes, Holacanthus ciliaris, Holacanthus tricolor and Pomacanthus paru	Caribbean	Gut content analysis confirmed that the fishes ate S. verparium	Randall and Hartman (1968)
Spheciospongia vesparium	Polychaete, Branchiosyllis oculata	Bermuda	Polychaetes changed colour, depending on which sponge they were, and feeding was confirmed by examining the gut content	Pawlik (1983, as Spheciospongia othella)
Spheciospongia vesparium	Sea star, Oreaster reticulatus	San Blas, Caribbean	The sea star fed on the sponge in a feeding choice experiment	Wulff (1995)
Spheciospongia sp.	Hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata	Seychelles	Oesophageal lavage yielded the material that showed that the turtles were eating Spheciospongia sp.	Cuevas et al. (2007), von Brandis et al. (2014)
Spheciospongia sp.	Surgeonfish, Acanthurus pyroferus; butterfly fishes, Chaetodon kleinii, Chaetodon vagabundus; and idol, Zanclus cornutus	Wakatobi, Banda Sea	The fishes fed on the sponge	Powell et al. (2015)
Spirastrella coccinea	Angelfishes, Holacanthus ciliaris, Holacanthus tricolor, Pomacanthus arcuatus and Pomacanthus paru	Caribbean	Gut content analysis confirmed that the fishes ate S. coccinea	Randall and Hartman (1968)
Spirastrella coccinea	Angelfishes, Pomacanthus arcuatus and Pomacanthus paru	San Blas, Caribbean	During field observations the bites were counted the fishes took from S. coccinea	Wulff (1994)
Spirastrella coccinea	Hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata	Dominican Republic, Caribbean	Oesophageal lavage yielded the material that showed that the turtles were eating S. coccinea	León and Bjorndal (2002)
Spirastrella cf. cunctatrix	Sea star, Oreaster reticulatus	San Blas, Caribbean	The sea star was observed to feed on the sponge in the field	Wulff (1995)
Spirastrella decumbens	Angelfishes, Holacanthus passer and Pomacanthus zonipectus	Mexican Pacific	The fishes consumed S. decumbens	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010)
Spirastrella hartmani	Angelfish, Pomacanthus paru	Brazil	S. hartmani was consumed by the angelfish, as evidenced by gut content	Batista et al. (2012)
Spirastrella sp.	Angelfishes, Pomacanthus paru, Holacanthus ciliaris and H. tricolor	Bahía, Brazil	Spirastrella sp. was commonly consumed by the angelfishes, as evidenced by gut content	Andréa et al. (2007)
Thoosa mismalolli	Angelfishes	Mexican Pacific	The fishes consumed T. mismalolli	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010)
Thoosa sp.	Angelfishes, Holacanthus passer and Pomacanthus zonipectus	Mexican Pacific	The fishes consumed Thoosa sp.	Verdín Padilla et al. (2010)