Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Production of biofuels from microalgae

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The production of biofuels from microalgae, especially biodiesel, has become a topic of great interest in recent years. However, many of the published papers do not consider the question of scale up and the feasibility of the various processes to be operated at the very large scale required if algal biofuels are to make a meaningful contribution to renewable fuels. All the steps in the process must also be very low cost. This paper discusses the unit processes required for algal biofuels production (i.e., growing the algae, harvesting, dewatering, extraction and conversion to biofuel) and their scalability. In many cases, especially in the lipid extraction step, little is known as yet as to the scalability and economic feasibility of the various processes proposed. We also highlight the key engineering and biological issues which must be resolved for the production of biofuels from microalgae to become an economic reality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acién Fernández FG, Fernández Sevilla JM, Sánchez Pérez JA, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (2001) Airlift-driven external-loop tubular photobioreactors for outdoor production of microalgae: assessment of design and performance. Chem Eng Sci 56:2721–2732

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amin S (2009) Review of biofuel oil and gas production processes from microalgae. Energy Convers Manag 50:1834–1840

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anastopoulos G, Zannikou Y, Stournas S, Kalligeros S (2009) Transesterification of vegetable oils with ethanol and characterization of the key fuel property of ethyl esters. Energies 2:362–376

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ansell AD, Raymont JEG, Lauder KF, Crowley E, Shackley P (1963) Studies on the mass culture of Phaeodactylum. II. The growth of Phaeodactylum and other species in outdoor tanks. Limnol Oceanogr 8:184–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson AW, Gunning BES, John PCL (1972) Sporopollenin in the cell wall of Chlorella and other algae: ultrastructure, chemistry, and incorporation of 14C-acetate, studied in synchronous culture. Planta 107:1–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayoub GM, Lee S, Koopman B (1986) Seawater induced algal flocculation. Water Res 20:1265–1271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barbosa MJ, Albrecht M, Wijffels RH (2003) Hydrodynamic stress and lethal events in sparged microalgae cultures. Biotechnol Bioeng 83:112–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker EW (1994) Microalgae. Biotechnology and microbiology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 293

    Google Scholar 

  • Belay A (1997) Mass culture of Spirulina outdoors—the Earthrise Farms experience. In: Vonshak A (ed) Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): physiology, cell-biology and biochemistry. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 131–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Bikou E, Louloudi A, Papayannakos N (1999) The effect of water on the transesterification kinetics of cotton seed oil with ethanol. Chem Eng Technol 22:70–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bitton G, Fox JL, Strickland HG (1975) Removal of algae from Florida lakes by magnetic filtration. Appl Environ Microbiol 30:905–908

    Google Scholar 

  • Bligh EG, Dyer WJ (1959) A rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification. Can J Biochem Physiol 37:911–917

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (1992) Algal biotechnology products and processes: matching science and economics. J Appl Phycol 4:267–279

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (1996) Closed algal photobioreactors: design considerations for large-scale systems. J Mar Biotechnol 4:185–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (1997) Algae for aquaculture: opportunities and constraints. J Appl Phycol 9:393–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (1998a) Limits to growth. In: Wong YS, Tam NFY (eds) Wastewater treatment with algae. Springer, Berlin, pp 203–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (1998b) Tubular photobioreactors for large-scale algal culture. In: Subramanian G, Kaushik BD, Venkatamaran GS (eds) Cyanobacterial biotechnology. Oxford &IBH Publishing Co, New Delhi, pp 249–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (1999a) Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters. J Biotechnol 70:313–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (1999b) Economic evaluation of microalgal processes and products. In: Cohen Z (ed) Chemicals from microalgae. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 387–409

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (2005) Culturing microalgae in outdoor ponds. In: Anderson RA (ed) Algal culturing techniques. Elsevier Academic, London, pp 205–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (2010a) Algae oils for biofuels: chemistry, physiology, and production. In: Cohen Z, Ratledge C (eds) Single cell oils. Microbial and algal oils. AOCS, Urbana, pp 271–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (2010b) Carotenoid production using microalgae. In: Cohen Z, Ratledge C (eds) Single cell oils. Microbial and algal oils. AOCS, Urbana, pp 225–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka LJ, Borowitzka MA (1989) ß-Carotene (Provitamin A) production with algae. In: Vandamme EJ (ed) Biotechnology of vitamins. Pigments and growth factors. Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp 15–26

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA, Hallegraeff G (2007) Economic importance of algae. In: McCarthy PM, Orchard AE (eds) Algae of Australia: introduction. ABRS, Canberra, pp 594–622

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA, Moheimani NR (2011) Sustainable biofuels from algae. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change. doi:10.1009/s11027-010-9271-9

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosca C, Dauta A, Marvalin O (1991) Intensive outdoor algal cultures—how mixing enhances the photosynthetic production rate. Bioresour Technol 38:185–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bosma R, van Spronsen WA, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (2003) Ultrasound, a new separation technique to harvest microalgae. J Appl Phycol 15:143–153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan L, Owende P (2010) Biofuels from microalgae—a review of technologies for production, processing, and extraction of biofuels and co-products. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14:557–577

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burlew JS (1953) Algae culture. From laboratory to pilot plant. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, pp 1–357

    Google Scholar 

  • Canakci M, Van Gerpen J (1999) Biodiesel production via acid catalysis. Trans ASAE 42:1203–1210

    Google Scholar 

  • Cartens M, Molina-Grima E, Robles-Medina A, Giminez Giminez A, Ibanez Gonzalez J (1996) Eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) from the marine microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum. JAOCS 73:1025–1031

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaumont D, Thepenier C, Gudin C, Junjas C (1988) Scaling up a tubular photoreactor for continuous culture of Porphyridium cruentum from laboratory to pilot plant (1981–1987). In: Stadler T, Mollion J, Verdus MC, Karamanos Y, Morvan H, Christiaen D (eds) Algal biotechnology. Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp 199–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng-Wu Z, Zmora O, Kopel R, Richmond A (2001) An industrial-size flat plate glass reactor for mass production of Nannochloropsis sp. (Eustigmatophyceae). Aquaculture 195:35–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chini Zittelli G, Rodolfi L, Biondi N, Tredici MR (2006) Productivity and photosynthetic efficiency of outdoor cultures of Tetraselmis suecica in annular columns. Aquaculture 261:923–943

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chisti Y, Moo-Young M (1996) Bioprocess intensification through bioreactor engineering. Trans IChemE 74:575–583

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooney M, Young G, Nagle N (2009) Extraction of bio-oils from microalgae. Sep Purif Rev 38:291–325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corre G, Templier J, Largeau C, Rousseau B, Berkaloff C (1996) Influence of cell wall composition on the resistance of two Chlorella species (Chlorophyta) to detergents. J Phycol 32:584–590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craggs RJ, Davies-Colley RJ, Tanner CC, Sukias JP (2003) Advanced pond system: performance with high rate ponds of different depths and areas. Water Sci Technol 48:259–267

    Google Scholar 

  • Cravotto G, Boffa L, Mantegna S, Perego P, Avogadro M, Cintas P (2008) Improved extraction of vegetable oils under high-intensity ultrasound and/or microwaves. Ultrason Sonochem 15:898–902

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csögör Z, Herrebauer M, Schmidt K, Posten C (2001) Light distribution in a novel photobioreactor—modelling for optimisation. J Appl Phycol 13:325–333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cysewski GR, Lorenz RT (2004) Industrial production of microalgal cell-mass and secondary products—species of high potential: Haematococcus. In: Richmond A (ed) Microalgal culture: biotechnology and applied phycology. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 281–288

    Google Scholar 

  • Danquah MK, Gladman B, Moheimani N, Forde GM (2009) Microalgal growth characteristics and subsequent influence on dewatering efficiency. Chem Eng J 151:73–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Del Campo JA, Rodríguez H, Moreno J, Vargas MA, Rivas J, Guerrero MG (2001) Lutein production by Muriellopsis sp. in an outdoor tubular photobioreactor. J Biotechnol 85:289–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demirbas A (2003) Biodiesel fuels from vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic supercritical alcohol transesterifications and other methods: a survey. Energy Convers Manag 44:2093–2109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demirbas A (2009) Production of biodiesel from algae oils. Energy Sources A 31:163–168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demirbas A (2010) Use of algae as biofuels. Energy Convers Manag 51:2738–2749

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doctor R, Palmer A, Coleman D, Davidson J, Hendricks C, Kaarstad O, Ozaki M, Austell M (2005) Transport of CO2. In: Metz B, Davidson O, de Coninck H, Loos M, Meyer L (eds) IPCC special report on carbon dioxide capture and storage. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 179–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd JC (1986) Elements of pond design and construction. In: Richmond A (ed) CRC handbook of microalgal mass culture. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 265–283

    Google Scholar 

  • Doucha J, Livansky K (1995) Novel outdoor thin-layer high density microalgal culture system: productivity and operational parameters. Algol Stud 76:129–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Doucha J, Livansky K (1999) Process of outdoor thin-layer cultivation of microalgae and blue-green algae and bioreactor for performing the same. USA Patent 5,981,271

  • Doucha J, Straka F, Livansky K (2005) Utilization of flue gas for cultivation of microalgae (Chlorella sp.) in an outdoor open thin-layer photobioreactor. J Appl Phycol 17:403–412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehimen EA, Sun ZF, Carrington CG (2010) Variables affecting the in situ transesterification of microalgae lipids. Fuel 89:677–684

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg DM, Koopman B, Benemann JR, Oswald WJ (1981) Algal bioflocculation and energy conservation in microalgal sewage ponds. Biotechnol Bioeng Symp 11:429–448

    Google Scholar 

  • Fajardo AR, Esteban-Cerdan L, Robles-Medina A, Acién Fernández FG, Gozalez-Moreno PA, Molina-Grima E (2007) Lipid extraction from the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 109:120–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Féris LA, Rubio J (1999) Dissolved air flotation (DAF) at low saturation pressures. Filtr Sep 36:61–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folch J, Lees M, Stanley GHS (1951) A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipides from animal tissues. J Biol Chem 226:497–509

    Google Scholar 

  • Fulks W, Main KL (1991) The design and operation of commercial-scale live feeds production systems. In: Fulks W, Main KL (eds) Rotifer and microalgae culture systems. The Oceanic Institute, Honolulu, pp 3–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Camacho F, Contreras Gomez A, Acién Fernández FG, Fernandez Sevilla JM, Molina Grima E (1999) Use of concentric-tube airlift photobioreactors for microalgal outdoor mass cultures. Enzyme Microb Technol 24:165–172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green FB, Bernstone LS, Lundquist TJ, Oswald WJ (1996) Advanced integrated wastewater pond systems for nitrogen removal. Water Sci Technol 33:207–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwell HG, Laurens LML, Shields RJ, Lovitt RW, Flynn KJ (2010) Placing microalgae on the biofuels priority list: a review of the technological challenges. J R Soc Interface. doi:10.1098/rsif.2009.0322

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths MJ, Harrison STL (2009) Lipid productivity as a key characteristic for choosing algal species for biodiesel production. J Appl Phycol 21:493–507

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grobbelaar JU (1981) Deterministic production model for describing algal growth in large outdoor mass algal cultures. U O F S Publ No. 3:173–181

  • Grobbelaar JU (1994) Turbulence in mass algal cultures and the role of light dark fluctuations. J Appl Phycol 6:331–335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grobbelaar JU (2000) Physiological and technical considerations for optimising algal cultures. J Appl Phycol 12:201–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grobbelaar JU (2009a) Factors governing algal growth in photobioreactors: the “open” versus “closed” debate. J Appl Phycol 21:489–492

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grobbelaar JU (2009b) Upper limits of productivity and problems of scaling. J Appl Phycol 21:519–522

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grobbelaar JU, Soeder CJ (1985) Respiration losses in planktonic green algae cultivated in raceway ponds. J Plankton Res 7:497–506

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grobbelaar JU, Nedbal L, Tichy V (1996) Influence of high frequency light/dark fluctuations on photosynthetic characteristics of microalgae photo acclimated to different light intensities and implications for mass algal cultivation. J Appl Phycol 8:335–343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall DO, Acién Fernández FG, Cañizares Guerrero E, Rao KK, Molina Grima E (2003) Outdoor helical tubular photobioreactors for microalgal production: modeling of fluid-dynamics and mass transfer and assessment of biomass productivity. Biotechnol Bioeng 82:62–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Handy ST (2003) Greener solvents: room temperature ionic liquids from biorenewable resources. Chem Eur J 9:2938–2944

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hase R, Oikawa H, Sasao C, Morita M, Watanabe Y (2000) Photosynthetic production of microalgal biomass in a raceway system under greenhouse conditions in Sendai City. J Biosci Bioeng 89:157–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatanaka Y, Inaoka K, Kobayashi O, Higashihara M, Hiyama K (1998) Sensitivity of the surface coat of the halotolerant green alga Dunaliella parva (Volvocales, Chlorophyceae) to lysozyme. Phycol Res 46:1–147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrero M, Cifuentes A, Ibanez E (2006) Sub- and supercritical fluid extraction of functional ingredients from different natural sources: plants, food-by-products, algae and microalgae. A review. Food Chem 98:136–148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill J, Nelson E, Tilman D, Polasky S, Tiffany D (2006) Environmental, economic, and energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and ethanol biofuels. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 103:11206–11210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu Q, Kurano N, Kawachi M, Iwasaki I, Miyachi S (1998) Ultrahigh-cell-density culture of a marine green alga Chlorococcum littorale in a flat-plate photobioreactor. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 49:655–662

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huntley M, Redalje D (2007) CO2 mitigation and renewable oil from photosynthetic microbes: a new appraisal. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 12:573–608

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen M, Tramper J, Mur LR, Wijffels RH (2002) Enclosed outdoor photobioreactors: light regime, photosynthetic efficiency, scale-up, and future prospects. Biotechnol Bioeng 81:193–210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez C, Cossío BR, Labella D, Niell FX (2003) The feasibility of industrial production of Spirulina (Arthrospira) in southern Spain. Aquaculture 217:179–190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson MB, Wen Z (2009) Production of biodiesel fuel from the microalga Schizotrychium limacinum by direct transesterification of algal biomass. Energy Fuels 23:5179–5183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jorquera O, Kiperstock A, Sales EA, Embirucu M, Ghirardi ML (2010) Comparative energy life-cycle analyses of microalgal biomass production in open ponds and photobioreactors. Bioresour Technol 101:1406–1413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanazawa T, Yuhara T, Sasa T (1958) Mass culture of unicellular algae using the “open circulation method”. J Gen Appl Microbiol 4:135–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanel JS, Guelcher SA (1998) Method for rupturing microalgae cells. PCT Patent 9828407

  • Katchanov EH (2010) Energy production from algae in photobioreactors enriched with carbon dioxide. US Patent Application 2010/0233787

  • Kates M, Volcani BE (1966) Lipid components of diatoms. Biochim Biophys Acta 116:264–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knothe G (2006) Analyzing biodiesel: standards and other methods. JAOCS 83:823–833

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knothe G (2010) Biodiesel: current trends and properties. Top Catal 53:714–720

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knuckey RM, Brown MR, Robert R, Frampton DMF (2006) Production of microalgal concentrates by flocculation and their assessment as aquaculture feeds. Aquac Eng 35:300–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koberg M, Cohen M, Ben-Amotz A, Gedanken A (2010) Bio-diesel production directly from the algae biomass of Nannochloropsis by microwave and ultrasound radiation. Bioresour Technol. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.12.004

    Google Scholar 

  • Kok B (1953) Experiments on photosynthesis by Chlorella in flashing light. In: Burlew JS (ed) Algal culture. From laboratory to pilot plant. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, pp 63–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Kromkamp JC, Beardall J, Sukenik A, Kopecky J, Masojidek J, Van Bergeijk S, Gabai S, Shaham E, Yamshon A (2009) Short-term variations in photosynthetic parameters of Nannochloropsis cultures grown in two types of outdoor mass cultivation systems. Aquat Microb Ecol 56:309–322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kudsiana D, Saka S (2001) Methyl esterification of free fatty acids of rapeseed oil as treated in supercritical methanol. Fuel 80:225–231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lakeman MB, von Dassow P, Cattolico RA (2009) The strain concept in phytoplankton ecology. Harmful Algae 8:746–758

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laws EA, Terry KL, Wickman J, Chalup MS (1983) A simple algal production system designed to utilize the flashing light effect. Biotechnol Bioeng 25:2319–2335

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee YK (2001) Microalgal mass culture systems and methods: their limitation and potential. J Appl Phycol 13:307–315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee YK, Ding SY, Low CS, Chang YC, Forday WL, Chew PC (1995) Design and performance of an α-type tubular photobioreactor for mass cultivation of microalgae. J Appl Phycol 7:47–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee SJ, Kim SB, Kim JE, Kwon GS, Yoon BD, Oh HM (1998) Effects of harvesting method and growth stage on the flocculation of the green alga Botryococcus braunii. Lett Appl Microbiol 27:14–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee AK, Lewis DM, Ashman PJ (2009) Microbial flocculation, a potentially low-cost harvesting technique for marine microalgae for the production of biodiesel. J Appl Phycol 21:559–567

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee AK, Lewis DM, Ashman PJ (2010a) Energy requirements and economic analysis of a full-scale microbial flocculation system for microalgal harvesting. Chem Eng Res Des 88:988–996

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee JY, Jun SY, Ahn CY, Oh HM (2010b) Comparison of several methods for effective lipid extraction from microalgae. Bioresour Technol 101:S71–S74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz RT, Cysewski GR (2000) Commercial potential for Haematococcus microalgae as a natural source of astaxanthin. Trends Biotechnol 18:160–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu Y, Zhai Y, Liu M, Wu Q (2010) Biodiesel production from algal oil using cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) as feedstock. J Appl Phycol 22:573–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma F, Clements LD, Hanna MA (1998) The effects of catalyst, freee fatty acids and water on transesterificatioon of beef tallow. Trans ASAE 41:1261–1264

    Google Scholar 

  • Machacek MT, Smith TG (2009) Continuous algal biodiesel production facility. USA Patent US 2009/0071064

  • Martinot E, Dienst C, Weilang L, Qimin C (2007) Renewable energy futures: targets, scenarios, and pathways. Annu Rev Environ Resour 32:205–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masojidek J, Vonshak A, Torzillo G (2010) Chlorophyll fluorescence applications in microalgal mass cultures. In: Suggett DJ, Prásil O, Borowitzka MA (eds) Chlorophyll a fluorescence in aquatic science: methods and applications. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 277–292

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto H, Shioji N, Hamasaki A, Ikuta Y (1996) Basic study on optimization of raceway-type algal cultivator. J Chem Eng Jpn 29:541–543

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNeff CV, McNeff LC, Yan B, Nowlan DT, Rasmussen M, Gyberg AE, Krohn BJ, Fedie RL, Hoye TR (2008) A continuous catalytic system for biodiesel production. Appl Catal A 343:39–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meher LC, Vidya Sagar D, Naik SN (2006) Technical aspects of biodiesel production by transesterification—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 10:248–268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melis A, Neidhardt J, Benemann J (1999) Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyta) with small chlorophyll antenna sizes exhibit higher photosynthetic productivities and photon use efficiencies than normally pigmented cells. J Appl Phycol 10:515–525

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendes A, Reis A, Vasconcelos R, Guerra P, Lopes da Silva T (2009) Crypthecodinium cohnii with emphasis on DHA production: a review. J Appl Phycol 21:199–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers J (1953) Growth characteristics of algae in relation to the problems of mass culture. In: Burlew JS (ed) Algae culture. From laboratory to pilot plant. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, pp 37–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Moheimani NR, Borowitzka MA (2006) The long-term culture of the coccolithophore Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyta) in outdoor raceway ponds. J Appl Phycol 18:703–712

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohn FH (1988) Harvesting of micro-algal biomass. In: Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ (eds) Micro-algal biotechnology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 395–414

    Google Scholar 

  • Molina-Grima E, Garcia-Camacho F, Sanchez Perez JA, Acién Fernández FG, Fernandez Sevilla JM (1997) Evaluation of photosynthetic efficiency in microalgal cultures using averaged irradiance. Enzyme Microb Technol 21:375–381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molina Grima E, Ácien Fernandez FG, Garcia Camacho F, Chisti Y (1999) Photobioreactors: light regieme, mass transfer, and scaleup. J Biotechnol 70:231–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molina Grima E, Acién Fernández FG, Robles Medina A (2004) Downstream processing of cell-mass and products. In: Richmond A (ed) Microalgal culture: biotechnology and applied phycology. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 215–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore A (2001) Blooming prospects? EMBO Rep 2:462–464

    Google Scholar 

  • Moraine R, Shelef G, Sandbank E, Bar-Moshe Z, Shvartzbund A (1980) Recovery of sewage-borne algae: flocculation, flotation, and centrifugation techniques. In: Shelef G, Soeder CJ (eds) Algae biomass. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 531–545

    Google Scholar 

  • Morales J, de la Noüe J, Picard G (1985) Harvesting marine microalgae species by chitosan flocculation. Aquac Eng 4:257–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno J, Vargas MA, Rodriguez H, Rivas J, Guerrero MG (2003) Outdoor cultivation of a nitrogen-fixing marine cyanobacterium, Anabaena sp. ATCC 33047. Biomol Eng 20:191–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murugesan A, Umarani C, Chinnusamy TR, Krishnan M, Subramanian R, Neduzchezhain N (2008) Production and analysis of bio-diesel from non-edible oils—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 13:825–834

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagle N, Lemke P (1990) Production of methyl ester fuel from microalgae. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 24(25):355–361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olaizola M (2000) Commercial production of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis using 25,000-liter outdoor photobioreactors. J Appl Phycol 12:499–506

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oswald WJ (1988) Large-scale algal culture systems (engineering aspects). In: Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ (eds) Micro-algal biotechnology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 357–394

    Google Scholar 

  • Oxley J, Startari JF (1999) Modified bioreactor. PCT Patent 99/15620

  • Papazi A, Makridis P, Divanach P (2009) Harvesting Chlorella minutissima using cell coagulants. J Appl Phycol 22:349–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pernet F, Tremblay R (2003) Effect of ultrasonication and grinding on the determination of lipid class content of microalgae harvested on filters. Lipids 38:1191–1195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phan L, Brown H, White J, Hodgson A, Jessop PG (2009) Soybean oil extraction and separation using switchable or expanded solvents. Green Chem 11:53–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poelman E, De Pauw N, Jeurissen B (1997) Potential of electrolytic flocculation for recovery of microalgae. Resour Conserv Recycl 19:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pohl P, Kohlhase M, Martin M (1988) Photobioreactors for the axenic mass cultivation of microalgae. In: Stadler T, Mollion J, Verdus MC, Karamanos Y, Morvan H, Christiaen D (eds) Algal biotechnology. Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp 209–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Polle JEW, Kanakagiri S, Jin ES, Masuda T, Melis A (2002) Truncated chlorophyll antenna size of the photosystems—a practical method to improve microalgal productivity and hydrogen production in mass culture. Int J Hydrogen Energy 27:1257–1264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pulz O (2001) Photobioreactors: production systems for phototrophic microorganisms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 57:287–293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pushparaj B, Pelosi E, Tredici MR, Pinzani E, Materassi R (1997) An integrated culture system for outdoor production of microalgae and cyanobacteria. J Appl Phycol 9:113–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ranjan A, Patil C, Moholkar VS (2010) Mechanistic assessment of microalgal lipid extraction. Ind Eng Chem Res 49:2979–2985

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raven JA (1997) Putting the C in phycology. Eur J Phycol 32:319–333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richmond A (1996) Efficient utilization of high irradiance for production of photoautotrophic cell mass: a survey. J Appl Phycol 8:381–387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richmond A (1999) Physiological principles and modes of cultivation in mass production of photoautotrophic microalgae. In: Cohen Z (ed) Chemicals from microalgae. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 353–386

    Google Scholar 

  • Richmond A (2000) Microalgal biotechnology at the turn of the millenium: a personal view. J Appl Phycol 12:441–451

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richmond A, Cheng-Wu Z (2001) Optimisation of a flat plate glass reactor for mass production of Nannochloropsis sp. outdoors. J Biotechnol 85:259–269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richmond A, Grobbelaar JU (1986) Factors affecting the output rate of Spirulina platensis with reference to mass cultivation. Biomass 10:253–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richmond A, Lichtenberg E, Stahl B, Vonshak A (1990) Quantitative assessment of the major limitations on productivity of Spirulina platensis in open raceways. J Appl Phycol 2:195–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson LF, Morrison AW, Bamforth MR (1988) Improvements relating to biosynthesis. European Patent 261:872

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodolfi L, Zitelli GC, Bassi N, Padovani G, Biondi N, Bonini G, Tredici MR (2009) Microalgae for oil: strain selection, induction of lipid synthesis and outdoor mass cultivation in a low-cost photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 102:100–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosello Sastre R, Csögör Z, Perner-Nochta I, Fleck-Schneider P, Posten C (2007) Scale-down of microalgae cultivations in tubular photo-bioreactors—a conceptual approach. J Biotechnol 132:127–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samori C, Torri C, Samori G, Fabbri D, Galletti P, Guerrini F, Pistocchi R, Tagliavini E (2010) Extraction of hydrocarbons from microalga Botryococcus braunii with switchable solvents. Bioresour Technol 101:3274–3279

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sánchez Mirón A, Cerón García MC, Contreras Gómez A, García Camacho F, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (2003) Shear stress tolerance and biochemical characterization of Phaeodactylum tricornutum in quasi steady-state continuous culture in outdoor photobioreactors. Biochem Eng J 16:287–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandbank E, Shelef G, Wachs AM (1974) Improved electroflotation for the removal of suspended solids from algae pond effluents. Water Res 8:587–592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer K (1998) Accelerated solvent extraction of lipids for determining the fatty acid composition of biological material. Anal Chim Acta 358:69–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid AM, Borowitzka MA, Volcani BE (1981) Morphogenesis and biochemistry of diatom cell walls. In: Kiermayer O (ed) Cytomorphogenesis in plants. Springer Verlag, Vienna, pp 61–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Scragg AH, Illman AM, Carden A, Shales SW (2002) Growth of microalgae with increased calorific values in a tubular bioreactor. Biomass Bioenergy 23:67–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Setlík I, Veladimir S, Malek I (1970) Dual purpose open circulation units for large scale culture of algae in temperate zones. I. Basic design considerations and scheme of pilot plant. Algol Stud (Trebon) 1:111–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheehan J, Dunahay T, Benemann J, Roessler P (1998) A look back at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Aquatic Species Program—biodiesel from algae. National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, Colorado. NREL/TP-580-24190, pp 1–328

  • Shelef G (1974) Process and apparatus for sewage treatment and wastewater reclamation. Great Britain Patent GB1358244

  • Shelef G, Sukenik A, Green M (1984) Microalgal harvesting and processing: a literature review. US Department of Energy: Golden Colorado. SERI/STR-231-2396, pp 1–65

  • Shimamatsu H (1987) A pond for edible Spirulina production and its hydraulic studies. Hydrobiologia 151/152:83–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snook H (1983) Apparatus and method for magnetic separation. PCT Patent WO83/01398

  • Soong P (1980) Production and development of Chlorella and Spirulina in Taiwan. In: Shelef G, Soeder CJ (eds) Algae biomass. Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical, Amsterdam, pp 97–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Sosik HM, Olson J, Armbrust EV (2010) Flow cytometry in phytoplankton research. In: Suggett DJ, Prásil O, Borowitzka MA (eds) Chlorophyll a fluorescence in aquatic sciences: methods and applications. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 171–185

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stephens E, Ross IL, King Z, Mussgnug JH, Kruse O, Posten C, Borowitzka MA, Hankamer B (2010) An economic and technical evaluation of microalgal biofuels. Nature Biotechnol 28:126–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson AL, Kazamia E, Dennis JS, Howe CJ, Scott SA, Smith AG (2010) Life-cycle assessment of potential algal biodiesel production in the United Kingdom: a comparison of raceways and air-lift tubular bioreactors. Energy Fuels 24:4062–4077

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sukenik A, Shelef G (1984) Algal autoflocculation—verfication and proposed mechanism. Biotechnol Bioeng 26:142–147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sukenik A, Bilanovic D, Shelef G (1988) Flocculation of microalgae in brackish and sea waters. Biomass 15:187–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamiya H (1957) Mass culture of algae. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 8:309–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torzillo G, Sacchi A, Materassi R, Richmond A (1991) Effect of temperature on yield and night biomass loss in Spirulina platensis grown outdoors in tubular photobioreactors. J Appl Phycol 3:103–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torzillo G, Carlozzi P, Pushparaj B, Montaini E, Materassi R (1993) A 2-plane tubular photobioreactor for outdoor culture of Spirulina. Biotechnol Bioeng 42:891–898

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tredici MR (2004) In: Richmond A (ed) Mass production of microalgae: photobioreactors. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 178–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Tredici MR, Materassi R (1992) From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels—the Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms. J Appl Phycol 4:221–231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tredici MR, Zittelli GC (1998) Efficiency of sunlight utilization: tubular versus flat photobioreactors. Biotechnol Bioeng 57:187–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tredici MR, Carlozzi P, Zittelli GC, Materassi R (1991) A vertical alveolar panel (VAP) for outdoor mass cultivation of microalgae and cyanobacteria. Bioresour Technol 38:153–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Bergeijk SA, Salas-Leiton E, Cañavate JP (2010) Low and variable productivity and low efficiency of mass cultures of the haptophyte Isochrysis aff. galbana (T-iso) in outdoor tubular photobioreactors. Aquac Eng 43:14–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandamme D, Foubert I, Meesschaert B, Muylaert K (2010) Flocculation of microalgae using cationic starch. J Appl Phycol 22:525–530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasquez V, Heussler P (1985) Carbon dioxide balance in open air mass culture of algae. Arch Hydrobiol Ergebn Limnol, Beih 20:95–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasudevan PT, Briggs M (2008) Biodiesel production—current state of the art and challenges. J Ind Microbiol 35:421–430

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verbruggen A, Al Marchohi M (2010) Views on peak oil and its relation to climate change policy. Energy Policy 38:5572–5581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vonshak A (1997) Outdoor mass production of Spirulina: the basic concept. In: Vonshak A (ed) Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): physiology, cell-biology and biochemistry. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 79–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Vonshak A, Abeliovich A, Boussiba S, Arad S, Richmond A (1982) Production of Spirulina biomass: effects of environmental factors and population density. Biomass 2:175–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vonshak A, Torzillo G, Accolla P, Tomaselli L (1996) Light and oxygen stress in Spirulina platensis (cyanobacteria) grown outdoors in tubular reactors. Physiol Plant 97:175–179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vonshak A, Torzillo G, Masojidek J, Boussiba S (2001) Sub-optimal morning temperature induces photoinhibition in dense outdoor cultures of the alga Monodus subterraneus (Eustigmatophyta). Plant Cell Environ 24:1113–1118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wahlen BD, Willis RM, Seefeldt LC (2011) Biodiesel production by simultaneous extraction and conversion of total lipids from microalgae, cyanobacteria, and wild mixed-cultures. Bioresour Technol 102:2724–2730

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker DA (2009) Biofuels, facts, fantasy and feasibility. J Appl Phycol 21:508–517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walmsley RD, Shillinglaw SN (1984) Mass algal culture in outdoor plastic-covered miniponds. Ann Appl Biol 104:185–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walter C, Steinau T, Gerbsch N, Buchholz R (2003) Monoseptic cultivation of phototrophic organisms—development and scale-up of a photobioreactor system with thermal sterilization. Biomol Eng 20:261–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weissmann JC, Goebel RP (1988) Photobioreactor design: mixing, carbon utilisation, and oxygen accumulation. Biotechnol Bioeng 31:336–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weyer KM, Bush DR, Darzins A, Willson BD (2010) Theoretical maximum algal oil production. Bioenergy Res 3:204–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu R, Mi Y (2011) Simplifying the process on microalgal biodiesel production through in situ transesterification technology. JAOCS 88:91–99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yahi H, Elmaleh S, Coma J (1994) Algal flocculation-sedimentation by pH increase in a continuous reactor. Water Sci Technol 30:259–267

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang YF, Feng CP, Inamori Y, Maekawa T (2004) Analysis of energy conversion characteristics in liquefaction of microalgae. Resour Conserv Recycl 43:21–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young G, Nippgen F, Titterbrandt S, Cooney MJ (2010) Lipid extraction from biomass using co-solvent mixtures of ionic liquids and polar covalent molecules. Sep Purif Technol 72:118–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zittelli GC, Lavista F, Bastianini A, Rodolfi L, Vincencini M, Tredici MR (1999) Production of eicosapentaenoic acid by Nannochloropsis sp. cultures in outdoor tubular photobioreactors. J Biotechnol 70:299–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zmora O, Richmond A (2004) Microalgae for aquaculture. Microalgae production for aquaculture. In: Richmond A (ed) Microalgal culture: biotechnology and applied phycology. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 365–379

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Algae R & D Center, School of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia

    Sophie Fon Sing, Andreas Isdepsky, Michael A. Borowitzka & Navid Reza Moheimani

Authors
  1. Sophie Fon Sing
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Andreas Isdepsky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Michael A. Borowitzka
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Navid Reza Moheimani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Navid Reza Moheimani.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fon Sing, S., Isdepsky, A., Borowitzka, M.A. et al. Production of biofuels from microalgae. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 18, 47–72 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-011-9294-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-011-9294-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation