It is estimated that by 2010 >85% of globally available fish oil (FO) and ̃50% of fish meal (FM) will be consumed by aquaculture so, it is vital that reliance on marine raw materials is reduced and that sustainable aquafeeds are developed using more terrestrial plant products. In addition, levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), principally dioxins/furans and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), in some European FO may breach new EU limits and prevent their use in aquafeeds. Current evidence suggests that salmonids can be grown on diets where 100% of the FO is replaced by vegetable oils (VO), and that bass and bream fed up to 60% VO showed no detrimental effects on growth. However, use of VO can result in reductions of the n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids, DHA and EPA, of between 50% and 65%, although these values can be restored to 70–100% of the values in fish fed FO by the use of FO-containing finishing diets. Such high levels of FO replacement can only be used if essential fatty acid levels are maintained by inclusion of adequate FM levels. Simultaneous reductions in FM and FO will require considerable care if fish health and welfare, as well as product quality, are to be maintained. The efficacy of n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), principally EPA and DHA, in the prevention or modulation of many of the inflammatory conditions prevalent in the developed world is well established. However, there is concern that the levels of POPs (dioxins, PCBs and PBDEs), as well as the presence of toxic metals, (e.g., Pb, As, Cd and Hg), present a potential risk to human health. he nutrients, as well as contaminants, found in fish flesh are derived largely from the feed and, thus, farmed fish can be tailored to provide optimal levels of fatty acids, and selected vitamins and minerals for human consumption.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Albanes D, Hartman TJ (1999) Antioxidants and cancer: evidence from human observational studies and intervention trials. In: Papas, A.M., ed.), Antioxidant status, diet, nutrition, and health. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 497–544.
Arslan G, Brunborg LA, Frøyland L, Brun JG, Valen M, Berstad A (2002) Effects of duodenal seal oil administration in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Lipids 37: 935–940
Arzel J, Cardinal M, Cornet J, Metailler R, Guillaume JC (1993) Nutrition of brown trout (Salmo trutta) reared in seawater, effect of dietary lipid on growth performances, body composition and fillet quality. Special publication European Aquaculture Society 19: 309
Arzel J, Martinez Lopez FX, Metailler R, Stephan G, Viau M, Gandemer G, Guillaume J (1994) Effect of dietary lipid on growth performance and body composition of brown trout (Salmo trutta) reared in seawater. Aquaculture 123: 361–375
Baker RTM (2001) The effect of certain micronutrients on fish flesh quality. In: Kestin SC, Warriss PD (eds.), Farmed fish quality. Blackwell, Oxford, UK, pp. 180–191
Bang HO, Dyerberg J (1972) Plasma lipids and lipoproteins in Greenlandic west coast Eskimos. Acta Medical Scandinavia 192: 85–94
Bang HO, Dyerberg J, Sinclair HM (1980) The composition of the Eskimo food in north western Greenland. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 33: 2657–2661
Barlow S, Pike IH (2001) Aquaculture feed ingredients in year 2010: fish meal and fish oil. In: Nash, CE, Julien, V (eds.), Aquavision’98. 2nd Nutreco Aquaculture Business Conference. Stavanger, Norway, 13–15th May 1998 Nutreco Aquaculture, Stavanger, Norway, pp. 71–74
Bell JG, Cowey CB (1989) Digestibility and bioavailability of dietary selenium from fishmeal, selenite, selenomethionine and selenocystine, in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 81: 61–68
Bell JG, Henderson RJ, Tocher DR, McGhee F, Dick JR, Porter A, Smullen RP, Sargent JR (2002) Substituting fish oil with crude palm oil in the diet of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) affects muscle fatty acid composition and hepatic fatty acid metabolism. Journal of Nutrition 132: 222–230
Bell JG, Henderson RJ, Tocher DR, Sargent JR (2004a) Replacement of dietary fish oil with increasing levels of linseed oil: Modification of flesh fatty acid compositions in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) using a fish oil finishing diet. Lipids 39: 223–232
Bell JG, McEvoy J, Tocher DR, McGhee F, Campbell PJ, Sargent JR (2001) Replacement of fish oil with rapeseed oil in diets of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) affects tissue lipid compositions and hepatocyte fatty acid metabolism. Journal of Nutrition 131: 1535–1543
Bell JG, McGhee F, Campbell PJ, Sargent JR (2003b) Rapeseed oil as an alternative to marine fish oil in diets of post-smolt Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): changes in flesh fatty acid composition and effectiveness of subsequent fish oil “wash out”. Aquaculture 218: 515–528
Bell JG, McGhee F, Dick JR, Tocher DR (2005) Dioxin and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Scottish farmed salmon (Salmo salar): effects of replacement of dietary marine fish oil with vegetable oils. Aquaculture 243: 305–314
Bell JG, MacKinlay EE, Dick JR, MacDonald DJ, Boyle RM, Glen ACA (2004b) Essential fatty acids and phospholipase A2 in autistic spectrum disorders. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essent. Fatty Acids 71: 201–204
Bell JG, McVicar, AH, Park, MT, Sargent, JR (1991) High dietary linoleic acid affects the fatty acid compositions of individual phospholipids from tissues of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): association with stress susceptibility and cardiac lesion. Journal of Nutrition 121: 1163–1172
Bell JG, Tocher DR, Farndale BM, Cox DI, McKinney RW, Sargent JR (1997) The effect of dietary lipid on polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) undergoing parr-smolt transformation. Lipids 32: 515–525
Bell JG, Tocher DR, Henderson RJ, Dick JR, Crampton VO (2003a) Altered fatty acid compositions in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed diets containing linseed and rapeseed oils can be partially restored by a subsequent fish oil finishing diet. Journal of Nutrition 133: 2793–2801
Bell JG, Youngson A, Mitchell AI, Cowey CB (1989) The effect of enhanced intake of linoleic acid on the fatty acid composition of tissue polar lipids of post smolt Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Lipids 24: 240–242
Bell MV, Dick JR (1991) Molecular species composition of the major diacyl glycerophospholipids from muscle, liver retina, and brain of cod (Gadus morhua). Lipids 26: 565–573
Bell MV, Dick JR, Porter AEA (2001b) Biosynthesis and tissue deposition of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Lipids 36: 1153–1159
Bell MV, Dick JR, Porter AEA (2003c) Pyloric ceca are a major site of 22:6n-3 synthesis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Lipids 39: 39–44
Belluzzi A, Miglio F (1998) n-3 fatty acids in the treatment of ulcerative colitis. In: Kremer J (ed.), Medicinal fatty acids in inflammation. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, pp. 103–109
Bendiksen EÅ, Berg OK, Jobling M, Arnesen AM, Måsøval K (2003) Digestibility, growth and nutrient utilisation of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in relation to temperature, feed fat content and oil source. Aquaculture, 224: 283–299
Berntssen MHG, Lundebye A-K, Torstensen BE (2005) Reducing the levels of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in farmed Atlantic salmon by substitution of fish oil with vegetable oil in the feed. Aquaculture Nutrition 11: 219–231
Bignert A, Olsson M, Persson W, Jensen S, Zakrisson S, Litzen K, Eriksson U, Haggberg L, Alsberg T (1998) Temporal trends of organochlorines in Northern Europe, 1967–1995. Relation to global fractionation, leakage from sediments and international measures. Environmental Pollution 99: 177–198
Billman GE, Kang JX, Leaf A (1999) Prevention of sudden cardiac death by dietary pure omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs. Circulation 99: 2452–2457
Brækkan OR (1959) A comparative study of vitamins in the trunk muscles of fishes. Reports on technological research concerning Norwegian fish industry. Vol. III (8): 1–42
Brevik EM, Biseth A, Oehme M (1990) Levels of polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dibenzo-p-dioxins in crude and processed fish oils in relation to origin and cleaning method. Organohalogen Compound. 1: 467–470
Brevik H, Thorstad O (2004) Removal of organic environmental pollutants from fish oil by short path distillation. The effect of a working fluid. Eurofed Lipid Conference, 5–8th September, Edinburgh, UK
Brønstad I, Bjerkås I, Waagbø R (2002) The need for riboflavin supplementation in high and low energy diets for Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. parr. Aquaculture Nutrition. 8: 209–220
Broughton KS, Johnson CS, Pace BK, Liebman M, Kleppinger KM (1997) Reduced asthma symptoms with n-3 fatty acid ingestion are related to 5-series prostaglandin production. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 65: 1011–1017
Burel C, Boujard T, Kaushik SJ, Boeuf G, Van Der Geyten S, Mol KA, Kuhn ER, Quinsac A, Krouti M, Ribaliller D (2000a) Potential of plant protein sources as fish meal substitutes in diets for turbot (Psetta maxima): growth, nutrient utilisation and thyroid status. Aquaculture 188: 363–382
Burel C, Boujard T, Tulli F, Kaushik SJ (2000b) Digestibility of extruded peas, extruded lupin, and rapeseed meal in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture 188: 285–298
Caballero MJ, Obach A, Rosenlund G, Montero D, Gisvold M, Izquierdo MS (2002) Impact of different dietary lipid sources on growth, lipid digestibility, tissue fatty acid composition and histology of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Aquaculture 214: 253–271
Calder PC (2001) Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity. Lipids 36: 1007–1024
Calder PC, Zurier RB (2001) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Rheumatoid Arthritis. Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care 4: 115–121
Connor WE (2000) Importance of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71: 171S-175S
Coorigan FM, Horrobin DF, Skinner ER, Besson JA, Cooper MB (1998) Abnormal content of n-6 and n-3 long-chain unsaturated fatty acids in the phosphoglycerides and cholesterol esters of parahippocampus cortex from Alzheimer’s disease patients and its relationship to acetyl CoA content. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology 30: 197–207
Covaci A, Voorspoels S, de Boer J (2003) Determination of brominated flame retardants, with emphasis on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in environmental and human samples – a review. Environment International 29: 735–756
de Francesco M, Parisi G, Medale F, Lupi P, Kaushik SJ, Poli BM (2004) Effect of long-term feeding with a plant protein mixture based diet on growth and body/fillet quality traits of large rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 236: 413–429
DeLany JP, Windhauser, MM, Champagne, CM, Bray, GA (2000) Differential oxidation of individual dietary fatty acids in humans. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79: 905–911
Demonty I, Deshaies Y, Lamrache B, Jacques H (2003) Cod protein lowers the hepatic triglyceride secretion rate in rats. Journal of Nutrition 133: 1398–1402
Denstadli V, Skrede A, Krogdahl Å, Sahlstrøm S, Storebakken T (2006) Feed intake, growth, feed conversion, digestibility, enzyme activities and intestinal structure in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed graded levels of phytic acid. Aquaculture 256: 365–376
Dewailly EE, Blanchet C, Gingras S, Lemieux S, Sauve L, Bergeron J, Holub BJ (2001a) Relations between n-3 fatty acid status and cardiovascular disease risk factors among Quebecers. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 74: 603–611
Dewailly EE, Blanchet C, Lemieux S, Sauve L, Gingras S, Ayotte P, Holub BJ (2001b) n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease risk factors among the Inuit of Nunavik. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 74: 464–473
DH (Department of Health) (1994) Nutritional aspects of cardiovascular disease. Report of the cardiovascular review group committee on Medical aspects of food policy. Reports on health and social subjects No. 46. HMSO: London
Dias J (1999) Lipid deposition in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.): nutritional regulation of hepatic lipogenesis. Dr. thesis, Univ. Porto (Portugal) and Univ. Bordeaux I (France), 190 pp
Dosanjh BS, Higgs DA, Plotnikoff MD, Markert JR, Buckley JT (1988) Preliminary evaluation of canola oil, pork lard and marine lipid singly and in combination as supplemental dietary lipid sources for juvenile fall Chinook salmon (Oncorhychus tshawytscha). Aquaculture 68: 325–343
Drake EN (2006) Cancer chemoprevention: selenium as a prooxidant not an antioxidant Medical Hypotheses 67: 318–322
Duarte J, Vinderola G, Ritz B, Perdidon G, Matar C (2006) Immunomodulating capacity of commercial fish protein hydrolysate for diet supplementation. Immunobiology 211: 341–350
Dyerberg J, Bang HO, Hjorne N (1975) Fatty acid composition of the plasma lipids in Greenland eskimos. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 28: 958–966
Easton MDL, Luszniak D, Von der Geest E (2002) Preliminary examination of contaminant loadings in farmed salmon, wild salmon and commercial salmon feed. Chemosphere 46: 1053–1074
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2005) The EFSA Journal 236, 123 pages http://www.efsa.eu.int/science/contam/contam_opinions/1007_en.html (Consulted 12th July 2005)
European Commission Directive 70/524/EEC of 23 November 1970 concerning additives in feeding-stuffs
European Commission Regulation 199/2006a amending Regulation (EC) 466/2001 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs as regards dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs
European Commission Directive (2006b)/13/EC amending Annexes I and II to Directive 2002/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on undesirable substances in animal feed as regards dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs
FAO (2005) FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Unit. Fishstat Plus; Universal software for fishery statistical time series, Aquaculture production; quantities 1950–2003, Aquaculture production values 1984–2003; Capture production; 1950–2003; Commodities production and trade; 1950–2003; Total production 1970–2003, Vers. 2.30
Ferreti A, Flanagan VP (1996) Antithromboxane activity of dietary α-linolenic acid: A pilot study. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 54: 451–455
Fernandes G, Chandrasekar B, Luan X, Troyer DA (1996) Modulation of antioxidant enzymes and programmed cell death by n-3 fatty acids. Lipids 31: S91–S96
Fernie KJ, Shutt JL, Mayne G, Hoffman D, Letcher RJ, Drouillard KG, Ritchie IJ (2005) Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): Changes in thyroid, vitamin A, glutathione homeostasis and oxidative stress in American kestrels (Falco sparverius). Toxicological Sciences 88: 375–383
Figueiredo-Silva A, Rocha E, Dias J, Silva P, Rema P, Gomes E, Valente LMP (2005) Partial replacement of fish oil by soybean oil on lipid distribution and liver histology in European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juveniles. Aquaculture Nutrition 11: 147–155
FIN (2004) Contaminants in fish and fishmeal – a fish meal information network summary
Finnen MJ, Lovell CR (1991) Purification and characterisation of phospholipase A2 from human epidermis. Biochemical Society Transactions 19: 91S
Fonseca-Madrigal J, Karalazos V, Campbell PJ, Bell JG, Tocher DR (2005) Influence of dietary palm oil on growth, tissue fatty acid compositions, and fatty acid metabolism in liver and intestine in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture Nutrition 11: 241–250
Food Standards Agency (2004) Brominated flame retardants in trout and eels from the Skerne-Tees river system and total diet study samples. Food Surveillance Information Sheet No. 52/04, April 2004, FSA, London, available at http://www.food.gov.uk/science/surveillance/fsis2004branch/fsis5204 (consulted 11th July 2005)
Foran JA, Good DH, Carpenter DO, Hamilton MC, Knuth BA, Schwager SJ (2005) Quantitative analysis of the benefits and risks of consuming farmed and wild salmon. Journal of Nutrition 135: 2639–2643
Fournier V, Huelvan C, Debruyeres E (2004) Incorporation of a mixture of plant feedstuffs as a substitute for fish meal in diets of juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture 236: 451–465
Fowles JR, Fairbrother A, Baecher-Steppan L, Kerkvliet NI (1994) Immunologic and endocrine effects of flame retardant pentabrominated diphenyl ether (DE-71) in C57BL/6J mice. Toxicology 86: 49–61
Fox M, Benjamin J, Nemets B (2004) A placebo-controlled cross-over trial of adjunctive EPA in OCD. Journal of Psychiatric Research 38: 323–325
Francis G, Makkar HPS, Becker K (2001) Antinutritional factors present in plant-derived alternate fish feed ingredients and their effects in fish. Aquaculture 199: 197–227
Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Julien P (2004) Major depression is associated with lower omega-3 fatty acid levels in patients with recent acute coronary symptoms. Biological Psychiatry 55: 891–896
Froescheis O, Looser R, Cailliet GM, Jarman WM, Ballschmiter K (2000) The deep-sea as a final global sink of semivolatile persistent organic pollutants? Part 1: PCBs in surface and deep-sea dwelling fish of North and South Atlantic and the Monterey Bay Canyon (California). Chemosphere 40: 651–660
Frøyland L, Lie Ø, Berge RK (2000) Mitochondrial and peroxisomal beta-oxidation capacities in various tissues from Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Aquaculture Nutrition 6: 85–89
Givens DI, Gibbs RA (2006) Very long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the UK and the potential of animal-derived foods to increase intake. Nutrition Bulletin 31: 104–110
Glencross BD, Carter CG, Duijster N, Evans DR, Dods K, McCafferty P, Hawkins WE, Maas R, Sipsas S (2004) A comparison of the digestibility of a range of lupin and soybean protein products when fed to either Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) or rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 237: 333–346
Glencross BD, Hawkins WE, Curnow JG (2003) Restoration of the fatty acid composition of red seabream (Pagrus auratus) using a fish oil finishing diet after grow-out on plant oil based diets. Aquaculture Nutrition 9: 409–418
Goldburg R, Naylor R (2005) Future escapes, fishing, and fish farming. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 3: 21–28
Gomes EF, Rema P, Kaushik SJ (1995) Replacement of fish meal by plant proteins in the diet of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): digestibility and growth performance. Aquaculture 130: 177–186
Gomez-Requeni P, Mingarro M, Kirchner S, Calduch-Giner JA, Medale F, Martin SAM, Houlihan DF, Kaushik SJ, Perez-Sanchez J (2004) Protein growth performance, amino acid utilisation and somatotrophic axis responsiveness to fish meal replacement by plant protein sources in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). Aquaculture 232: 493–510
Gomez-Requeni P, Mingarro M, Kirchner S, Calduch-Giner JA, Medale F, Corraze G, Panserat S, Martin SAM, Houlihan DF, Kaushik SJ, Perez-Sanchez J (2003) Effects of dietary amino acid profile on growth performance, key metabolic enzymes and somatotrophic axis responsiveness of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). Aquaculture 220: 749–767
Graff IE, Waagbø R, Fivelstad S Vermeer C, Lie Ø Lundebye A-K (2002) A multivariate study on the effects of dietary vitamin K, vitamin D3 and calcium, and dissolved carbon dioxide on growth, bone minerals, vitamin status and health performance in smolting Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Journal of Fish Diseases 25: 1–16
Greene DHS, Selivonchick DP (1990) Effects of dietary vegetable, animal and marine lipids on muscle lipid and haematology of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 89: 165–182
Guillou A, Soucy P, Khalil M, Adambounou L (1995) Effects of dietary vegetable and marine lipid on growth, muscle fatty acid composition and organoleptic quality of flesh of brook charr (Salvelinius fontalis). Aquaculture 136: 351–329
Haby MM, Peat JK, Marks GB, Woolcock AJ, Leeder SR (2001) Asthma in preschool children: prevalence and risk factors. Thorax 56: 589–595
Hamre K, Berge RK, Lie O (1998) Oxidative stability of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, L.) fillet enriched in alpha-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol through dietary supplementation. Food Chemistry 62: 173–178
Hamre K, Christiansen R, Waagbø R, Maage A, Torstensen B, Lygren B, Lie Ø, Wathne E, Albrektsen S (2004) Antioxidant vitamins, minerals and lipid levels in diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, L.): effects on growth performance and fillet quality. Aquaculture Nutrition 10: 113–123
Hardman WE (2002) Omega-3 fatty acids to augment cancer therapy. Journal of Nutrition 132: 3508S-3512S
Hardman WE, Moyer MP, Cameron IL (2002) Consumption of an omega-3 fatty acid product, INCELL AAFA, reduced side-effects of CPY-11 (irinotecan) in mice. The British Journal of Cancer 86: 983–988
Hardy RW, Scott TM, Harrell LW (1987) Replacement of herring oil with menhaden oil, soybean oil, or tallow in the diets of Atlantic salmon raised in marine net-pens. Aquaculture 65: 267–277
Harris WS, von Schacky MD (2004) The Omega-3 index: a new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease? Preventive Medicine 39: 212–220
Heimli H, Giske C, Naderi S, Drevon CA, Hollung K (2002) Eicosapentaenoic acid promotes apoptosis in Ramos cells via activation of caspase-3 and -9. Lipids 37: 797–802
Hemre GI, Sandnes K (1999) Effect of dietary lipid level on muscle composition in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Aquaculture Nutrition 5: 9–16
Henderson RJ (1996) Fatty acid metabolism in freshwater fish with particular reference to polyunsaturated fatty acids. Archives of Animal Nutrition 49: 5–22
Hertrampf JW, Piedad-Pascual F (eds.) (2000) Handbook on ingredients for aquaculture feeds. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 573 pp
Hetzel BS, Clugston GA (1999) Iodine. In: Shils, Olaon, Shine and Ross (eds.), Modern nutrition in health and disease. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp. 253–264
Hibbeln JR (2002) Seafood consumption, the DHA content of mother’s milk and prevalence rates of postpartum depression: a cross-national, ecological analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 69: 15–29
Hites RA, Foran JA, Carpenter DO, Hamilton MC, Knuth BA, Schwager SJ (2004a) Global assessment of organic contaminants in farmed salmon. Science 303: 226–229
Hodge L, Salome CM, Hughes JM, Liu-Brennan D, Rimmer R, Allman M, Pang D, Armour C, Woolcock AJ (1998) Effect of dietary intake of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on severity of asthma in children. The European Respiratory Journal 11: 361–365
Hodge L, Salome C, Peat JK, Haby MM, Xuan W, Woolcock AJ (1996) Consumption of oily fish and childhood asthma risk. Medical Journal of Australia 164: 137–140
Horrocks LA, Yeo YK (1999) Health benefits of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Pharmacological Research 40: 211–225
Huntington T, Frid C, Banks R, Scott C, Paramor O (2004) Assessment of the sustainability of industrial fisheries producing fishmeal and fish oil. Report to the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), Poseidon Aquatic Resource Management Ltd., Lymington, Hampshire, UK, 62 pp, Appendices
Iribarren C, Markovitz JH, Jacobs DR, Schreiner PJ, Daviglus M, Hibbeln JR (2004) Dietary intake of n-3, n-6 fatty acids and fish: relationship with hostility in young adults – the CARDIA study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58: 24–31
Iritani N, Narita R, Fujita T, Tanaka T (1985) Effects of dietary fish protein, soybean protein and casein on cholesterol turnover in rats. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 31: 385–392
Izquierdo MS, Montero D, Robaina L, Caballero MJ, Rosenlund G, Gines R (2005) Alterations in fillet fatty acid profile and flesh quality in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) fed vegetable oils for a long term period. Recovery of fatty acid profiles by fish oil feeding. Aquaculture 250: 431–444
Izquierdo MS, Obach A, Arantzamendi L, Montero D, Robaina L, Rosenlund G (2003) Dietary lipid sources for sea bream and sea bass: growth performance, tissue composition and flesh quality. Aquaculture Nutrition 9: 397–407
Jacobs MN, Covaci A, Schepens P (2002b) Investigation of selected organic pollutants in farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), salmon aquaculture feed, and fish oil components of the feed. Environmental Science & Technology 36: 2797–2805
Jacobs MN, Ferrario J, Byrne C (2002a) Investigation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins dibenzo-p-furans and selected coplanar biphenyls in Scottish farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Chemosphere 47: 183–191
Jacques H (1990) Effects of dietary proteins on plasma cholesterol and lipoproteins in animal models and in humans. In: Sugano and Beynen (eds.), Monographs on atherosclerosis. Dietary Proteins, Cholesterol Metabolism and Atherosclerosis VII. Karger AG, Basel, Switzerland, New York, pp. 59–70
Jobling M (2003) Do changes in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., fillet fatty acids following a dietary switch represent wash out or dilution? Test of a dilution model and its application. Aquaculture Research 34: 1215–1221
Julshamn K, Dahl L, Eckhoff K (2001) Determination of iodine in seafood by inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometry. Journal of AOAC International 84: 1976–1983
Julshamn K, Maage A, Waagbø R, Lundebye A-K (2006) A preliminary study on tailoring of fillet iodine concentrations in adult Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) through dietary supplementation. Aquaculture Nutrition 12: 45–51
James MJ, Cleland LG (1997) Dietary n-3 fatty acids and therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism 27: 85–97
Kaushik S, Corraze G (2004) Substitution des huiles de poisson dans les aliments pour poissons. AquaFilia 2: 5–9
Kaushik SJ, Coves D, Dutto G, Blanc D (2004) Almost total replacement of fish meal by plant protein sources in the diet of a marine teleost, the European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax. Aquaculture 230: 391–404
Kaushik SJ, Cravedi JP, Lalles JP, Sumpter J, Fauconneau B, Laroche M (1995) Partial or total replacement of fishmeal by soybean protein on growth, protein utilisation, potential estrogenic or antigentic effects, cholesterolemia and flesh quality in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Aquaculture 133: 257–274
Kiessling K-H, Keissling A (1993) Selective utilisation of fatty acids in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum) red muscle mitochondria. Canadian Journal of Zoology 71: 248–251
Kelley VE, Ferretti A, Izui S, Strom TB (1985) A fish oil diet rich in eicosapentaenoic acid reduces cyclooxygenase metabolites and suppresses lupus in MRL-lpr mice. Journal of Immunology 134: 1914–1919
Keys A, Anderson JT, Grande F (1957) Serum cholesterol response to dietary fat. Lancet 1: 787
Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ (2002) Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 106: 2747–2757
Lall SP (2002) The minerals. In: Halver, JE, Hardy, RW (eds.), Fish nutrition, 3rd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 259–308
Lands WEM (1992) Biochemistry and physiology of n-3 fatty acids. FASEB J. 6: 2530–2536
Lands WEM (2003) Diets could prevent many diseases. Lipids. 38: 317–321
Lands WEM, Libelt B, Morris A, Kramer NC, Prewitt TE, Bowen P, Schmeisser D, Davidson MH, Burns JH (1992) Maintenance of lower proportions of n-6 eicosanoid precursors in phospholipids of human plasma in response to added dietary n-3 fatty acids. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1180: 147–162
Lavigne C, Marette A, Jacques H (2000) Cod and soy proteins compared with casein improve glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in rats. American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology and Metabolism 278: E491–E500
Leaf A, Weber PC (1987) A new era for science in nutrition. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45: 1048–1053
Lie Ø (2001) Flesh quality – the role of nutrition. Aquaculture Research 32: 341–348
Lombardo YB, Chicco AG (2006) Effects of dietary polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acods on dyslipidemia and insulin resistance in rodents and humans. A review. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 17: 1–13
Lorentzen M (1998) Trace elements in practical diets to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Dr Scient Dissertation, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Lorentzen M, Maage A, Julshamn K (1994) Effects of dietary selenite or selenomethionine on tissue selenium levels of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture, 121: 359–367
Lundebye AK, Berntssen MHG, Lie Ø, Richie G, Isosaari P, Kiviranta H, Vartiainen T (2004) Dietary uptake of dioxins (PCDD/PCDFs) and dioxin-like PCBs in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture Nutrition 10: 199–207
Lundebye-Haldorsen A-K, Lie Ø (1999) An overview of dioxins in Norwegian fish and marine products. Norwegian Agricultural Inspection Service, Oslo, Norway
Maage A (1994) Trace elements in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar nutrition. Dr Scient Dissertation, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Machlin LJ (ed. 1991) Handbook of vitamins, 2nd edn. Marcel Dekker, New York, 595 pp
Mæland A, Sandnes K, Hjeltnes B, Waagbø R (1998) Biotin in practical fish meal based diet for Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., fry. Aquaculture Nutrition 4: 241–247
Maes J, De Meulenaer B, Van Heerswynghels P, Dr Greyt W, Eppe G, De Pauw E, Huyghebaert A (2005) Removal of dioxins and PCB from fish oil by activated carbon and its influence on the nutritional quality. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 82: 593–597
Maillard V, Bougnoux P, Ferrari P, Jourdain ML, Pinault M, Lavillonniere F, Body G, Le Folch O, Chajes V (2002) N-3 and n-6 fatty acids in breast cancer in case-control study in Tours, France. International Journal of Cancer 98: 78–93
Marchioli R, Barzi F, Bomba E, Chieffo C, Di Gregorio DDMR, Franzosi MG (2002) Early protection against sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarction: time course analysis of the results of the Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Miocardico (GSSI)-Prevenzione. Circulation 105: 1897–1903
McCully KS (1991) Micronutrients, homocysteine metabolism, and atherosclerosis. In: Bendich A, Butterworth CE (eds.), Micronutrients in health and disease prevention. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 69–93
Medale F, Bouchard T, Vallee F, Blanc D, Mambrini M, Roem A, Kaushik SJ (1998) Voluntary feed intake, nitrogen and phosphorous losses in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Aquaculture 124: 117–126
Menoyo D, Izquierdo MS, Robaina L, Gines R, Lopez-Bote CJ, Bautista JM (2004) Adaptation of lipid metabolism, tissue composition and flesh quality in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) to the replacement of dietary fish oil by linseed and soybean oils. The British Journal of Nutrition 92: 41–52
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1999) Dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in marine fish, fish and fish products. Food Safety Information Sheet 184, MAFF, London, UK
Montero D, Robaina L, Caballero R, Gines R, Izquierdo MS (2005) Growth, feed utilization, and flesh quality of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) fed diets containing vegetable oils: A time course study on the effect of a re-feeding period with a 100% fish oil diet. Aquaculture 248: 121–134
Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Wilson RS, Aggarwal N, Schneider J (2003) Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer’s disease. Archives of Neurology 60: 940–946
Morris PC, Gallimore P, Handley J, Hide G, Haughton P, Black A (2005) Full-fat soya for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in freshwater: Effects on performance, composition and flesh fatty acid profile in absence of hind gut enteritis. Aquaculture 248: 147–161
Mourente G, Good JE, Bell JG (2005) Partial substitution of fish oil with rapeseed, linseed and olive oils in diets for European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) effects on flesh fatty acid composition, plasma prostaglandins E2 and F2α, immune function and effectiveness of a fish oil finishing diet. Aquaculture Nutrition 11: 25–40
Mundheim H, Aksnes A, Hope B (2004) Growth, feed efficiency and digestibility in salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed different dietary proportions of vegetable protein sources in combination with two fish meal qualities. Aquaculture 237: 315–331
Murata M, Sano Y, Bannai S, Ishihara K, Matsushima R, Uchida M (2004) Fish protein stimulated the fibrinolysis in rats. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 48: 348–356
National Research Council (1993) Nutrient requirements of fish. National Academy Press, Washington DC, USA
Newcomer LM, King IB, Wicklund KG, Stanford JL (2001) The association of fatty acids with prostate cancer. The Prostate 47: 262–268
Ng W-K, Sigholt T, Bell JG (2004a) The influence of environmental temperature on the apparent nutrient and fatty acid digestibility in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed finishing diets containing different blends of fish oil, rapeseed oil and palm oil. Aquaculture Research 35: 1228–1237
Ng W-K, Wang Y, Ketchimenin P, Yuen K-H (2004b) Replacement of dietary fish oil with palm fatty acid distillate elevates tocopherol and tocotrienol concentrations and increases oxidative stability in the muscle of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). Aquaculture 233: 423–437
Noaghiul S, Hibbeln JR (2003) Cross national relationship of seafood consumption and rates of bipolar disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 160: 2222–2227
North Sea Task Force (1993) North Sea Quality Status Report. Oslo and Paris Commissions/International Council for Exploration of the Sea, London
Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (2006) Et helhetssyn på fisk og annen sjømat i norsk kosthold. Report (in Norwegian), 171 pp
Ørnsrud R, Graff LE, Høie S, Totland GK, Hemre GI (2002) Hypervitaminosis A in first-feeding fry of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture Nutrition 8: 7–13
Ørnsrud R, Lorentzen M (2002) Bioavailability of selenium from raw or cured selenomethionine-enriched fillets of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) assessed in selenium-deficient rats. The British Journal of Nutrition 87: 13–20
Ostermeyer U, Schmidt T (2006) Vitamin D and provitamin D in fish. European Food Research and Technology, 222: 403–413
Peet M, Brind J, Ramchand CN, Shah S, Vankar GK (2001) Two double blind placebo-controlled pilot studies of eicosapentaenoic acid in the treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 49: 243–251
Peet M, Murphy B, Shay J, Horrobin DF (1998) Depletion of omega-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients. Biological Psychiatry 43: 315–319
Pereira TG, Oliva-Teles A (2002) Preliminary evaluation of pea seed meal in diets for gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) juveniles. Aquaculture Research 33: 1183–1189
Picot L, Bordenave S, Didelot S, Fruitier-Arnaudin I, Sannier F, Thorkelsson G, Berge JP, Guerard F, Chabeaud A, Piot JM (2006) Anti-proliferative activity of fish protein hydrolysates on human breast cancer cell lines. Process of Biochemistry. 41: 1217–1222
Pike IH (2005) Eco-efficiency in aquaculture: global catch of wild fish used in aquaculture. International Aquafeed 8 (1): 38–40
Polatajko A, Jakubowski N, Szpunar J (2006) State of the art report of selenium speciation in biological samples. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 21: 639–654
Pusztai A, Bardocz S (2006) GMO in animal nutrition: potential benefits and risks. In: Mosenthin R, Zentek J, Zebrowska T (eds.), Biology of nutrition in growing animals. Elsevier, Edinburgh, UK, pp. 513–540
Refstie S, Korsoen OJ, Storebakken T, Baeverfjord G, Lein I, Roem AJ (2000) Differing nutritional responses to dietary soybean meal in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 190: 49–63
Richard, N., Kaushik, S., Larroquet, L., Panserat, S. and Corraze, G. (2006) Replacing dietary fish oil by vegetable oils had little effects on lipogenesis, lipid transport and tissue lipid uptake in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Brit. J. Nut. 96, 299–309
Richardson AJ (2004) Clinical trials of fatty acid treatment in ADHD, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 2004, 70: 383–390
Richardson AJ, Cyhlarova E, Ross MA (2003) Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid concentrations in red blood cell membranes relate to schizotypal traits in healthy adults. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids 69: 461–466
Richardson NL, Higgs DA, Beames RM, McBride JR (1985) Influence of dietary calcium, phosphorous, zinc and sodium phytate level on cataract incidence, growth and histopathology in juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). Journal of Nutrition 115: 553–567
Rogers JB (1998) The role of n-3 fatty acids in psoriasis, In: Kremer J (ed.), Medicinal fatty acids in inflammation. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, pp. 45–53
Rosenlund G, Obach A, Sandberg MG, Standal H, Tveit K (2001) Effect of alternative lipid sources on long-term growth performance and quality of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture Research 32: 323–328
Roulet M, Frascarolo P, Rappaz I, Pilet M (1997) Essential fatty acid deficiency in well nourished young cystic fibrosis patients. European Journal of Pediatrics 156: 952–956
Ruyter B, Røsjø C, Grisdale-Helland B, Rosenlund G, Obach A, Thomassen MS (2003) Influence of temperature and high dietary linoleic acid content on esterification, elongation, and desaturation of PUFA in Atlantic salmon hepatocytes. Lipids 38: 833–840
SACN/COT (Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition and Committee on Toxicity) (2004) Advice on fish consumption: benefits and risks. The Stationary Office: Norwich
Sanden M, Bruce IJ, Rahman MA, Hemre G-I (2004) The fate of transgenic sequences present in genetically modified plant products in fish feed, investigating the survival of GM soybean DNA fragments during feeding trials in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Aquaculture 237: 391–405
Sanderson P, Finnegan YE, Williams CM, Calder PC, Burdge GC, Wootton SA, Griffin BA, Millward DJ, Pegge NC, Bemelmans WJE (2002) UK Food standards agency alpha-linolenic acid workshop report. The British Journal of Nutrition 88: 573–579
Sandnes K, Rosenlund G, Mangor-Jensen A, Lie Ø (1998) Contents and organ distribution of pantothenic acid in maturing turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture Nutrition 4: 285–286
Sargent JR, Tocher DR, Bell JG (2002) The Lipids. In: Halver, JE, and Hardy, RW (eds.), Fish nutrition, 3rd edn. Elsevier Science, New York, pp. 181–257
Sastry PS (1985) Lipids of nervous tissue: composition and metabolism. Progress in Lipid Research 24: 69–176
SCAN (2000) Dioxin contamination of feeding stuffs and their contribution to the contamination of food of animal origin. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Animal Nutrition, adopted on November 6th 2000. 105 pages. European Commission for Health and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, Brussels, Belgium. http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/index_en.html (consulted 15th May 2004)
SCF (2001) Update of the Risk assessment of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs in food based on new scientific information available since adoption of the SCF opinion of 22nd November 2000. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on food, adopted on May 30th 2001. European Commission for Health and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, Brussels, Belgium http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/index_en.html (consulted 15th May 2004)
Schmid S, Ranz D, He ML, Burkard S, Lukowicz MV, Reiter R, Arnold R, Le Deit H, David M, Rambeck WA (2003) Marine algae as natural source of iodine in the feeding of freshwater fish – a new possibility to improve iodine supply in man. Revue de Medecine Veterinaire 154: 645–648
Simopoulos AP (1991) Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54: 438–463
Simopoulos AP (1999) Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70: 560S-569S
Simopoulos AP, Leaf A, Salem N (1999) Essentiality of and recommended dietary intakes for omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 43: 127–130
Simopoulos AP, Leaf A, Salem N (2000) Workshop statement on the essentiality of and recommended intakes for omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 63: 119–121
Singh RB, Niaz MA, Sharma JP, Kumar R, Rastogi V, Moshiri M (1997) Randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction: The Indian experiment of infarct survival-4. Cardiovascular drugs and therapy 11: 485–491
Sitja-Bobadilla A, Pena-Llopis S, Gomez-Requeni P, Medale F, Kaushik S, Perez-Sanchez J (2005) Effect of fishmeal replacement by plant protein sources on non-specific defence mechanisms and oxidative stress in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata). Aquaculture 249, 387–400.
Storebakken T, Shearer KD, Roem AJ (1998) Availability of protein, phosphorous and other elements in fish meal, soy-protein concentrate and phytase-treated soy-protein-concentrate-based diets to Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Aquaculture 161: 365–379
Storlien LH, Hulbert AJ, Else PL (1998) Polyunsaturated fatty acids, membrane function and metabolic diseases such as diabetes and obesity. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 1: 559–563
Stevens LJ, Zentall SS, Deck JL, Abate ML, Watkins BA, Lipp SR, Burgess JR (1995) Essential fatty-acid metabolism in boys with an attention-deficit hyperactive disorder. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62: 761–768
Suadicani P, Hein HO, Gyntelberg F (1992) Serum selenium concentration and risk of ischaemic heart disease in a prospective cohort study of 3000 males. Atherosclerosis 96: 33–42
Tacon AGJ (1997) Feeding tomorrow’s fish: keys for sustainability. In: Tacon AGJ, Basurco B (eds.), Feeding tomorrow’s fish. Cahiers options Mediterraneennes, Vol. 22. Zaragoza, Spain, pp. 11–33
Tacon AGJ (2003) Global trends in aquaculture and compound aquafeed production. International Aquafeed Directory 2003: 8–23
Tacon AGJ (2004) Use of fish meal and fish oil in aquaculture: a global perspective. Aquatic Resources, Culture & Development 1 (1): 3–14
Tacon AGJ (2005) Salmon aquaculture dialogue: Status of information on salmon aquaculture feed and the environment. International Aquafeed 8: 22–37
Taylor KE, Higgins CJ, Calvin CM, Hall JA, Easton T, McDaid AM, Richardson AJ (2000) Dyslexia in adults is associated with clinical signs of fatty acid deficiency. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 63: 75–78
Teskeredzic Z, Higgs DA, Dosanjh BS, McBride JR, Hardy RW, Beames RM, Jones JD, Simell M, Vaara T, Bridges RB (1995) Assessment of undephytinised and dephytinised rapeseed protein concentrate as sources of dietary protein for juvenile rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Aquaculture 131: 261–277
Tibaldi E, Tulli F, Amerio M (1999) Feed intake and growth responses of sea bass (D. labrax) fed different plant protein sources are not affected by supplementation with a feeding stimulant. In: Piva G, Bertoni G, Satoh S, Bani P, Calamari L (eds.), Recent Progress in Animal Production Science: I. Proceedings. A.S.P.A. XIII Congress, Piacenza, Italy, 21–24 June 1999. Assn. Sci. Anim. Production, Italy, pp. 752–754
Tidwell JH, Allan GL (2002) Fish as food: Aquaculture’s contribution. World Aquaculture 33, 44–48
Tocher DR, Bell JG, Dick JR, Henderson RJ, McGhee F, Mitchell DF, Morris PC (2000) Polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) undergoing parr-smolt transformation and the effects of dietary linseed and rapeseed oils. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 23: 59–73
Torstensen BE, Bell JG, Sargent JR, Rosenlund G, Henderson RJ, Graff IE, Lie Ø Tocher, DR (2005) Tailoring of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) flesh lipid composition and sensory quality by replacing fish oil with a vegetable oil blend. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53: 10166–10178
Torstensen BE, Frøyland L, Lie Ø (2004a) Replacing dietary fish oil with increasing levels of rapeseed oil and olive oil – effects on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) tissue and lipoprotein composition and lipogenic enzyme activities. Aquaculture Nutrition 10: 175–192
Torstensen BE, Frøyland L, Ørnsrud R, Lie Ø (2004b) Tailoring of a cardioprotective fillet fatty acid composition of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed vegetable oils. Food Chemistry 87: 567–580
Torstensen BE, Lie O, Froyland L (2000) Lipid metabolism and tissue composition in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)–effects of capelin oil, palm oil and oleic acid – enriched sunflower oil as dietary lipid sources. Lipids 35: 653–664
Torstensen BE, Lie Ø, Hamre K (2001) A factorial experimental design for investigation of effects of dietary lipid content and pro-and antioxidants on lipid composition in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) tissues and lipoproteins. Aquaculture Nutrition 7: 265–276
Tulli F, Tibaldi E, Comin A (1999) Dietary protein sources differently affect plasma lipid levels and body fat deposition in juvenile sea bass. In: Piva G, Bertoni G, Satoh S, Bani P, Calamari L (eds.), Recent Progress in Animal Production Science: I. Proceedings. A.S.P.A. XIII Congress, Piacenza, Italy, 21024 June 1999. Assn. Sci. Anim. Production, Italy, pp. 782–784
Van den Berg M, Birnbaum L, Bosveld ATC, Brunstrom B, Cook P, Feeley M, Glesy JP, Hanberg A, Hasegawa R, Kennedy SW, Kubiak T, Larsen JC, van Leewen FXR, Liem AKD, Nolte C, Peterson RE, Peollinger L, Safe S, Schrenk D, Tillit D, Tysklind M, Younes M, Waern F, Zacharewski T (1998) Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs for humans and wildlife. Environmental Health Perspectives 106: 775–792
Verlengia R, Gorjao R, Kanunfre CC, Bordin S, Martins de Lima T, Fernandes-Martins E, Newsholme P, Curi R (2004) Effects of EPA and DHA on proliferation, cytokine production and gene expression in Raj cells. Lipids 39: 857–864
Vielma J, Lall SP, Koskela J, Schöner F-J, Mattila P (1998) Effects of dietary phytase and cholecalciferol on phosphorous bioavailability in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 163: 309–323
Visentainer JV, de Souza NE, Makoto M, Hayashi C, Franco MRB (2005) Influence of diets enriched with flaxseed oil on the linolenic eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic fatty acid in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Food Chemistry 90: 557–560
Waagbø R, Sandnes K, Lie Ø, Roem A (1998) Effects of inositol supplementation on growth, chemical composition and blood chemistry in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., fry. Aquaculture Nutrition 4: 53–59
Waagbø R, Sandnes K, Sandvin A, Lie Ø (1991) Feeding three levels of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids at two levels of vitamin E to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Growth and chemical composition. Fisk. Dir. Skr., Ser. Ernaering. 4: 51–63
Waagbø R, Sandnes K, Torrisen OJ, Sandvin A, Lie Ø (1993) Chemical and sensory evaluation of fillets from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed three levels of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids at two levels of vitamin E. Food Chemistry 46: 361–366
Wang L, Folsom AR, Eckfeldt JH (2003) Plasma fatty acid composition and incidence of coronary heart disease in middle aged adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases 13: 256–266
Watanabe T (1977) Sparing action of lipid on dietary protein in fish. Low protein diet with high calorie content. Technocrat 10: 34–39
Watanabe T, Verakunpiriya V, Watanabe K, Viswanath K, Satoh S (1998) Feeding raonbow trout with non-fishmeal diets. Fisheries Science 63: 258–266
Yaqoob P (2004) Fatty acids and the immune system: from basis science to clinical applications. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 63: 89–104
Yildiz M, Sener E, Gun H (2006) Effect of refrigerated storage on fillet lipid quality of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss W.) fed a diet containing different levels of DL alpha – tocopherol acetate. Turkish Journal of Veterinary & Animal Sciences 30: 143–150
Young G, Conquer J (2005) Omega-3 fatty acids and neuropsychiatric disorders. Reproduction Nutrition Development 45: 1–28
Zheng ZJ, Croft JB, Giles WH, Mensah GA (2001) Sudden cardiac death in the United States, 1989 to 1998. Circulation 104: 2158–2163
Zhou T, Taylor MM, DeVito MJ, Crofton KM (2002) Developmental exposure to brominated diphenyl ethers results in thyroid hormone disruption. Toxicological Sciences 105–116
Ziboh VA (1998) The role of n-3 fatty acids in psoriasis. In: Kremer J (ed.), Medicinal fatty acids in inflammation. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, pp. 45–53
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bell, J.G., Waagbø, R. (2008). Safe and Nutritious Aquaculture Produce: Benefits and Risks of Alternative Sustainable Aquafeeds. In: Holmer, M., Black, K., Duarte, C.M., Marbà, N., Karakassis, I. (eds) Aquaculture in the Ecosystem. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6810-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6810-2_6
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-6809-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-6810-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)