Abstract
By-products from the non-ferrous industry are an environmental problem; however, their economic value is high if utilized elsewhere. For example, by-products that contain alkaline compounds can potentially sequestrate CO2 through the mineral carbonation process. This review discusses the potential of these by-products for CO2 reduction through mineral carbonation. The main by-products that are discussed are red mud from the alumina/aluminum industry and metallurgical slag from the copper, zinc, lead, and ferronickel industries. This review summarizes the CO2 equivalent emissions generated by non-ferrous industries and various data about by-products from non-ferrous industries, such as their production quantities, mineralogy, and chemical composition. In terms of production quantities, by-products of non-ferrous industries are often more abundant than the main products (metals). In terms of mineralogy, by-products from the non-ferrous industry are silicate minerals. Nevertheless, non-ferrous industrial by-products have a relatively high content of alkaline compounds, which makes them potential feedstock for mineral carbonation. Theoretically, considering their maximum sequestration capacities (based on their oxide compositions and estimated masses), these by-products could be used in mineral carbonation to reduce CO2 emissions. In addition, this review attempts to identify the difficulties encountered during the use of by-products from non-ferrous industries for mineral carbonation. This review estimated that the total CO2 emissions from the non-ferrous industries could be reduced by up to 9–25%. This study will serve as an important reference, guiding future studies related to the mineral carbonation of by-products from non-ferrous industries.
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All the data needed for this research has been provided in the manuscript.
Notes
Modified with the addition of 0.6128 × %FeO based on a previous study (Srivastava et al. 2022a)
Abbreviations
- Alu:
-
Aluminum silicate hydrate (Al2Si70O143.H2O)
- An:
-
Andradite (Ca-Fe-Al-Si oxide)
- Ant:
-
Anatase (TiO2)
- Ber:
-
Berlinite (AlPO4)
- Bo:
-
Boehmite (AlO(OH))
- Byr:
-
Bayerite (Al(OH)3)
- Cal:
-
Calcite (CaCO3)
- Can:
-
Cancrinite (Na6Ca1.5Al6Si6O24(CO3)16)
- Ca1:
-
Katoite (Ca3Al2(SiO4)(OH)8)
- Ca2:
-
Reinhardbraunsite (Ca5(SiO4)2(OH)2)
- Ca3:
-
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
- COP26:
-
The 26th Congress of the Parties
- Crt:
-
Cristobalite (SiO2)
- Cor:
-
Cordierite (Mg2Al4Si5O18)
- Ch:
-
Chantalite (CaAl2(SiO4)(OH)4)
- Cham:
-
Chamosite ((Fe, Mg)5Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)8)
- Clin:
-
Clinoenstatite (MgSiO3)
- DC:
-
Direct carbonation
- Dpr:
-
Diaspore (AlO(OH))
- Dpd:
-
Diopside (CaMgSi2O6)
- En:
-
Enstatite (MgSiO3)
- Fl:
-
Fluorite (CaF2)
- Frs:
-
Forsterite (Mg2SiO4)
- Fr:
-
Franklinite (Zn, Fe, Mn)(Fe, Mn)2O4
- Fy:
-
Fayalite (Fe2SiO4)
- Gar:
-
Garnet (Ca3Al2(SiO4)3)
- Gis:
-
Gismondine (Ca2Al4Si4O16.9(H2O))
- Gi:
-
Gibbsite (Al(OH)3)
- Go:
-
Goethite (FeO(OH))
- GWP:
-
Global warming potential
- Hem:
-
Hematite (Fe2O3)
- Her:
-
Hercynite (MgAl2Fe1.8O4)
- IC:
-
Indirect carbonation
- Im:
-
Ilmenite (FeTiO3)
- Ka:
-
Kaolinite-1A (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
- Kir:
-
Kirschsteinite (CaFeSiO4)
- LOI:
-
Loss on Ignition
- Mag:
-
Magnetite (Fe3O4)
- Mf:
-
Magnesioferrite (MgFe2O4)
- MF:
-
Magnesium iron silicate (Mg0.465Fe1.5353)Si2O6
- MFO:
-
Magnesium ferrous oxide (MgO)0.432(FeO)0.568
- Mul:
-
Mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2)
- Mus:
-
Muscovite (KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2)
- Nas:
-
Sodium aluminum silicate (Na5Al3Si3O15)
- Nep:
-
Nepheline ((Na,K)AlSiO4)
- Ol:
-
Olivine (Mg2SiO4)
- Prv:
-
Perovskite (CaTiO3)
- Py:
-
Pyroxene
- QSL:
-
Queneau-Schuhmann-Lurgi
- Qz:
-
Quartz (SiO2)
- Rtl:
-
Rutile (TiO2)
- Sdl:
-
Sodalite (Al3ClNa4Si3O12)
- Sl:
-
Silica (SiO2)
- So:
-
Sodium aluminum carbonate silicate (3NaAlSiO4.Na2CO3)
- Spn:
-
Spinels (MgAl2O4)
- S/L:
-
Solid/Liquid
- Trd:
-
Tridymite (SiO2)
- TSL:
-
Top submerged lance
- VO:
-
Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)
- Wlm:
-
Willemite (Zn2SiO4)
- Wus:
-
Wustite (FeO)
- Z:
-
Zinc diiron(III) oxide (ZnFe2O4)
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We thank Gabrielle David, PhD, from Edanz (https://jp.edanz.com/ac) for editing a draft of this manuscript.
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Fakhreza Abdul contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, and visualization. Atsushi Iizuka contributed to conceptualization, methodology, investigation, supervision, and writing—review and editing. Hsing-Jung Ho contributed to conceptualization, investigation, and writing—review and editing. Ken Adachi contributed to supervision and writing—review and editing. Etsuro Shibata contributed to conceptualization, investigation, supervision, and writing—review and editing. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Fakhreza Abdul, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Abdul, F., Iizuka, A., Ho, HJ. et al. Potential of major by-products from non-ferrous metal industries for CO2 emission reduction by mineral carbonation: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 78041–78074 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27898-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27898-y