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Quintessential Risk Factors: Their Role in Promoting Cognitive Dysfunction and Alzheimer’s Disease

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Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. The human brain is extremely sensitive to hypoxia, ischemia, and glucose depletion. Impaired delivery of oxygen in obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) alters neuronal homeostasis, induces pathology, and triggers neuronal degeneration/death. This article systematically delineates the steps in the complex cascade leading to AD, focusing on pathology caused by chronic intermittent hypoxia, hypertension, brain hypoperfusion, glucose dysmetabolism, and endothelial dysfunction. Hypoxia/hypoxemia underpins several pathological processes including sympathetic activation, chemoreflex activity, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and a host of perturbations leading to neurodegeneration. The arterial blood flow reduction in OSA is profound, being about 76 % in obstructive hypopneas and 80 % in obstructive apneas; this leads to cerebral ischemia promoting neuronal apoptosis in neocortex and brainstem. OSA pathology also includes gray matter loss in the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices, the thalamus, hippocampus, and key brainstem nuclei including the nucleus tractus solitarius. (18)F-FDG PET studies on OSA and AD patients, and animal models of AD, have shown reduced cerebral glucose metabolism in the above mentioned brain regions. Owing to the pathological impact of hypoxia, hypertension, hypoperfusion and impaired glucose metabolism, the adverse cardiovascular, neurocirculatory and metabolic consequences upregulate amyloid beta generation and tau phosphorylation, and lead to memory/cognitive impairment—culminating in AD. The framework encompassing these factors provides a pragmatic neuropathological approach to explain onset of Alzheimer’s dementia. The basic tenets of the current paradigm should influence the design of therapeutic strategies to ameliorate AD.

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Abbreviations

AGEs:

Advanced glucose endproducts

AD:

Alzheimer’s disease

Aβ:

Amyloid-β

APP:

Amyloid precursor protein

APAP:

Autotitrating positive airway pressure

AHI:

Apnea-hypopnea index

BACE:

β-site amyloid precursor protein cleavage enzyme

BFB:

Basal forebrain

BOLD:

Blood-oxygenation-level-dependent

BP:

Blood pressure

CAA:

Amyloid angiopathy

CBFV:

Cerebral artery blood flow velocity

CIC:

Circulating inflammatory cytokines

CIH:

Chronic intermittent hypoxia

CMRO2 :

Cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen

COX-2:

Cycloxygenase-2

CRP:

C-reactive protein

CPAP:

Continuous positive airway pressure

DM:

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

DMV:

Dorsal motor nucleus V cranial nerve

DMNV:

Dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus

EDS:

Excessive daytime sleepiness

ERC:

Entorhinal cortex

GMV:

Gray matter volume

HEP:

High energy phosphates

HIF:

Hypoxia-inducible factor

ICAM-1 and -2:

Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and -2

IGF-1R:

IGF-1 receptor

IH:

Intermittent hypoxia

IR:

Insulin receptor

IL-1β:

Interleukin-1β

LDL:

Low-density lipoprotein

MMP:

Matrix metalloproteinase 2

MTL:

Medial temporal lobe

NMDARs:

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors

MCAV:

Middle cerebral artery velocity

MCI:

Mild cognitive impairment

NA:

Nucleus ambiguus

NIRS:

Near-infrared spectroscopy

NFTs:

Neurofibrillary tangles

NO:

Nitric oxide

NREM:

Non-rapid eye movement sleep

NF-κB:

Nuclear factor kappa B

NTS:

Nucleus of the solitary tract

OSA:

Obstructive sleep apnea

PCC:

Posterior cingulate cortex

PECAM:

Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1

PFC:

Prefrontal cortex

RAGE:

AGE receptor

RAS:

Renin-angiotensin system

ROS:

Reactive oxygen species

SAA:

Serum amyloid A

SDB:

Sleep disordered breathing

SHR:

Hypertensive rat

SPs:

Amyloid senile plaques

SPECT:

Single photon emission computed tomography

TNF-α:

Tumor necrosis factor-α

UA:

Upper airway

VBM:

Voxel-based morphometry

VEGF:

Vascular endothelial growth factor

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  1. Sleep Disorders Group, Department of EEE/MSE, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia

    Mak Adam Daulatzai

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Daulatzai, M.A. Quintessential Risk Factors: Their Role in Promoting Cognitive Dysfunction and Alzheimer’s Disease. Neurochem Res 37, 2627–2658 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-012-0854-6

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