Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The influence of laser power on the interfaces of functionally graded materials fabricated by powder-based directed energy deposition

  • Metals & corrosion
  • Published:
Journal of Materials Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Powder-based directed energy deposition (DED) technology with separate feeders for different individual materials enables the deposition of functionally graded materials (FGM) in combinations that would be very problematic using conventional technologies. These emerging innovative materials with the tailored properties of bimetallic material structures have potential applications in the energy, automotive and petrochemical industries. The combination of materials such as austenitic stainless steel 316L in combination with nickel superalloy Inconel 718 may satisfy requirements for corrosion and oxidation resistance, while maintaining suitable strength even at increased temperatures, at reasonable costs. However, the joining of dissimilar materials has certain limitations, and success depends on their mutual arrangement and the deposition parameters. The experimental program of the present study was aimed at optimizing the laser power of the powder-based DED process with respect to the quality of the interfaces of functionally graded materials in terms of microstructure evolution, interface quality and mechanical properties. One of the main objectives of the research was the analysis of two types of interfaces and the reduction in crack generation and propagation on the interface transition from Inconel 718 to 316L depending on the applied laser power, which ranged from 350 to 500 W. The presence of solidification cracks (SC) together with ductility dip cracking (DDC) played the most significant role in terms of the quality of this type of interface and significantly affected the values of the mechanical properties. Miniaturized tensile testing (MTT) in ZYX orientation at the individual interfaces’ types throughout the deposit did not prove any dependence of the tensile characteristics on the sample position (bottom, middle and upper part of the block), but were strongly associated with changes in the laser power. The results presented in this study prove that cracking at interfaces of functionally graded materials is minimized by optimizing the deposition process parameters, specifically the laser power. The research presents a promising application of nickel superalloy Inconel 718 on a 316L stainless steel substrate in a horizontal configuration.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16
Figure 17
Figure 18
Figure 19
Figure 20
Figure 21
Figure 22
Figure 23
Figure 24
Figure 25
Figure 26

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Piscopo G, Iuliano L (2022) Current research and industrial application of laser powder directed energy deposition. Int J Adv Manuf Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-08596-w

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. InssTek (2022) http://www.insstek.com/content/am_module. Accessed 31st May 2022

  3. Uhlmann E, Düchting J, Petrat T et al (2021) Effects on the distortion of Inconel 718 components along a hybrid laser-based additive manufacturing process chain using laser powder bed fusion and laser metal deposition. Prog Addit Manuf 6:385–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-021-00171-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Graf B, Schuch M, Kersting R, Gumenyuk A, Rethmeier M (2015) Additive process chain using selective laser melting and laser metal deposition. In Lasers in Manufacturing Conference.

  5. Azarniya A et al (2019) Additive manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V parts through laser metal deposition (LMD): process, microstructure, and mechanical properties. J Alloys Com 804:163–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.04.255

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Kok Y, Tan XP, Wang P, Nai MLS, Loh NH, Liu E, Tor SB (2018) Anisotropy and heterogeneity of microstructure and mechanical properties in metal additive manufacturing: a critical review. J Mat Des 139:565–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.11.021

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Lin PY, Shen FC, Wu KT, Hwang SJ, Lee HH (2020) Process optimization for directed energy deposition of SS316L components. J Ad Man Tech 111:1387–1400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-06113-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Kim JS, Kang BJ, Lee SW (2019) An experimental study on microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of stainless-steel 316L parts using directed energy deposition (DED) process. J Mech Sci Tech 33(12):5731–5737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-019-1116-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Gibson I, Rosen D, Stucker B (2015) Additive manufacturing technologies, 2nd edn. Springer Science Business Media, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  10. Wei C, Li L, Zhang X, Chueh Y (2018) 3D printing of multiple metallic materials via modified selective laser melting. CIRP Ann Man Tech 67:245–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2018.04.096

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Chen Y, Zhang K, Huang J, Hosseini SRE, Li Z (2016) Characterization of heat affected zone liquation cracking in laser additive manufacturing of Inconel 718. J Mat Des 90:586–594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.10.155

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Hallberg E (2018) Investigation of hot cracking in additive manufactured nickel-base superalloys. Process optimization and crack removal with hot isostatic pressing. Master Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology.

  13. Lippold JC (2015) Welding metallurgy and weldability. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey

    Book  Google Scholar 

  14. Melzer D, Džugan J, Koukolíková M, Rzepa S, Vavřík J (2021) Structural integrity and mechanical properties of the functionally graded material based on 316L/IN718 processed by DED technology. J Mater Sci and Eng A 811:141038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141038

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Fajobi MA, Loto TR, Oluwole OO (2021) Austenitic 316L stainless steel; corrosion and organic inhibitor: a review. KEM 886:126–132. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.886.126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Chen N, Khan HA, Wan Z, Lippert J, Sun H, Shang S-L, Liu Z-K, Li J (2020) Microstructural characteristics and crack formation in additively manufactured bimetal material of 316L stainless steel and Inconel 625. Add Manuf 32:101037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101037

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Akca E, Gursel A A (2015) Review on superalloys and IN718 nickel-based INCONEL superalloy. Per Eng Nat Sci 3 No. 1. https://doi.org/10.21533/pen.v3i1.43.g47

  18. Hinojos A, Mireles J, Reichardt A, Frigola P, Hosemann P, Murr LE, Wicker RB (2016) Joining of Inconel 718 and 316 stainless steel using electron beam melting additive manufacturing technology. Mater Des 94:17–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.01.041

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Mohd Yusuf S, Zhao X, Yang S, Gao N (2021) Interfacial characterisation of multi-material 316L stainless steel/Inconel 718 fabricated by laser powder bed fusion. Mat Lett 284(1):128928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2020.128928

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Qiu Ch, Chen H, Liu Q, Yue S, Wang H (2019) On the solidification behaviour and cracking origin of a nickel-based superalloy during selective laser melting. Mat Char 148: 330–344, ISSN 1044-5803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2018.12.032.

  21. Ramkumar KD, Patel SD, Praveen SS, Choudhury DJ, Prabaharan P, Arivazhagan N, Xavior MA (2014) Influence of filler metals and welding techniques on the structure–property relationships of Inconel 718 and AISI 316L dissimilar weldments. Mater Des 1980–2015(62):175–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.05.019

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Xiao Y, Wan Z, Liu P, Wang Z, Li J, Chen L (2022) Quantitative simulations of grain nucleation and growth at additively manufactured bimetallic interfaces of SS316L and IN625. J Mater Process Technol 117506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2022.117506

  23. Smith TR, Sugar JD, San Marchi Ch, Schoenung J (2021) Microstructural development in DED stainless steels: applying welding models to elucidate the impact of processing and alloy composition. J Mat Sci 56:762–780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-020-05232-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Yan F, Xiong W, Faierson EJ (2017) Grain structure control of additively manufactured metallic materials. J Mat 10:1260. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10111260

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Feenstra DR, Molotnikov A, Birbilis N (2020) Effect of energy density on the interface evolution of stainless steel 316L deposited upon INC 625 via directed energy deposition. J Mater Sci 55:13314–13328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-020-04913-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Carroll BE, Otis RA, Borgonia JP, Suh J, Dillon RP, Shapiro AA, Hofmann DC, Zi-Kui L, Beese AM (2016) Functionally graded material of 304L stainless steel and inconel 625 fabricated by directed energy deposition: characterization and thermodynamic modeling. J Acta Mater 108:46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.019

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Li P, Gong Y, Xu Y, Qi Y, Sun Y, Zhang H (2019) Inconel-steel functionally bimetal materials by hybrid directed energy deposition and thermal milling: microstructure and mechanical properties. Archiv Civ Mech Eng 19:820–831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2019.03.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Yang SW, Yoon J, Lee H, Shim DS (2022) Defect of functionally graded material of inconel 718 and STS 316L fabricated by directed energy deposition and its effect on mechanical properties. J Mater Res Technol 17:478–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.01.029

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Meng W, Zhang W, Yin X, Guo L, Cui B (2019) Additive fabrication of 316L/Inconel625/Ti6Al4V functionally graded materials by laser synchronous preheating. J Int Jour Adv Man Tech 104(5–8):2525–2538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04061-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Han Q, Gu Y, Soe S, Lacan F, Setchi R (2020) Effect of hot cracking on the mechanical properties of Hastelloy X superalloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Opt Laser Tech. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2019.105984

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Zhang X, Chai Z, Huabin Chen H, Xu J, Luming Ch, Lu X, Chen X (2021) A novel method to prevent cracking in directed energy deposition of Inconel 738 by in-situ doping Inconel 718. J Mat Des 197:109214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109214

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Kim SH, Lee H, Yeon SM, Aranas C Jr, Choi K, Yoon J, Yang SW, Lee H (2021) Selective compositional range exclusion via directed energy deposition to produce a defect-free Inconel 718/SS 316L functionally graded material. Add Man 47:102288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102288

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Meng W, Zhang W, Zhang W, Yin X, Cui B (2020) Fabrication of steel-Inconel functionally graded materials by laser melting deposition integrating with laser synchronous preheating. Opt Las Tech 131:106451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106451

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Dzugan J, Seifi M, Prochazka R, Rund M, Podany P, Konopik P, Lewandowski JJ (2018) Effects of thickness and orientation on the small scale fracture behaviour of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V. Mater Char 143:94–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2018.04.003

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Dzugan J, Prochazka R, Konopik P (2015) Micro-tensile test technique development and application to mechanical property determination. STP 1576, ASTM Spec Tech Pub 12–30. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP157620140022.

  36. Melzer D, Džugan J, Koukolíková M, Rzepa S, Dlouhý J, Brázda M, Bucki T (2022) Fracture characterisation of vertically build functionally graded 316L stainless steel with Inconel 718 deposited by directed energy deposition process. Virt Phys Prot. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2022.2073793

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Gussev M N, Busby J T, Field K G, Sokolov M A, Gray S E (2015) Role of scale factor during tensite testing of small specimens. STP 1576, ASTM Spec Tech Pub 31– 49. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP157620140013.

  38. Suzuki S, Sato S, Suzuki M, Kinoshita H, ato S, Jitsukawa S, Tanigawa H (2015) Influence of surface roughness on tensile strength of reduced-activation ferritic/martensitic steels using small specimens. STP 1576, ASTM Spec Tech Pub, pp 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP157620140019.

  39. Dzugan J, Sibr M, Konopik P, Prochazka R, Rund M (2017) Mechanical properties determination of AM components. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 179:12019. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/179/1/012019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Azinpour E, Darabi R, Cesar de Sa JJ, Santos A, Hodek J, Dzugan J (2020) Fracture analysis in directed energy deposition (DED) manufactured 316L stainless steel using a phase-field approach. Finite Elem Anal Des 17715:103417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.finel.2020.103417

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Chvostová E, Horváth J, Konopik P, Rzepa S, Melzer D (2020) Optimization of test specimen dimensions for thermal power station exposure device. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 723:12009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/723/1/012009

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Zerbst U et al (2021) Damage tolerant design of additively manufactured metallic components subjected to cyclic loading: state of the art and challenges. J Prog Mat Sci 121:100786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2021.100786

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Pehlivan E et al (2020) Effects of build orientation and sample geometry on the mechanical response of miniature CP-Ti Grade 2 strut samples manufactured by laser powder bed fusion. J Add Man 35:101403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101403

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Číhal V (1999) Corrosion-resistant steels and alloys. Academia, Czech Republic

    Google Scholar 

  45. Zheng B et al (2019) On the evolution of microstructure and defect control in 316L SS components fabricated via directed energy deposition. J Mat Sci Eng A 764:138243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.138243

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Yuan Z et al (2017) Additive manufacturing of 316L stainless steel by electron beam melting for nuclear fusion applications. J Nuc Mat 486:234–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2016.12.042

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Zietala M et al (2016) The microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of 316 L stainless steel fabricated using laser engineered net shaping. J Mat Sci Eng A 677:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.09.028

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Saboori A, Aversa A, Marchese g, Biamino S, Lombardi M, Fino P, (2019) Application of directed energy deposition-based additive manufacturing in repair. Appl Sci 9:3316. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163316

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Kiran A, Koukolíková M, Vavřík J, Urbánek M, Džugan J (2021) Base plate preheating effect on microstructure of 316L stainless steel single track deposition by directed energy deposition. J Mat 14:5129. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185129

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Reichardt A, Dillon RP, Borgonia JP, Shapiro AA, McEnerney BW, Momose T, Hosemann P (2016) Development and characterization of Ti-6Al-4V to 304L stainless steel gradient components fabricated with laser deposition additive manufacturing. Mater Des 104:404–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.05.016

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Džugan J, Melzer D, Koukolíková M, Vavřík J, Seifi M (2020) characterization of functionally graded materials based on Inconel 718 and stainless steel 316L manufactured by DED process. Struc Int Add Man Mat and Parts, pp 247–256. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP163120190138

  52. Dang X, Li Y, Chen K, Luo S, Liang X, He W (2022) Insight into the interfacial architecture of a hybrid additively-manufactured stainless steel/Ni-based superalloy bimetal. Mater Des 216:110595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110595

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Li Y, Dlouhý J, Koukolíková M, Kirana A, Vavřík J, Džugan J (2022) Effect of deposit thickness on microstructure and mechanical properties at ambient and elevated temperatures for Inconel 718 superalloy fabricated by directed energy deposition. J All Com 908:164723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.164723

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Prashanth KG, Scudino S, Maity T, Das J, Eckert J (2017) Is the energy density a reliable parameter for materials synthesis by selective laser melting. J Mat Res Let 5(6):386–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/21663831.2017.1299808

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Liu SY (2020) The effect of energy density on texture and mechanical anisotropy in selective laser melted Inconel 718. J Mat Des 191:108642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108642

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Mei X, Wang X, Peng Y, Gu H, Zhong G, Yang S (2019) Interfacial characterization and mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel/inconel 718 manufactured by selective laser melting. Mater Sci Eng A 758:185–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.05.011

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Wei H, Mazumder J, Debroy T (2015) Evolution of solidification texture during additive manufacturing. Sci Rep 5:16446. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16446

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Boyce BL, Clark BG, Lu P et al (2013) The morphology of tensile failure in tantalum. Metall Mater Trans A 44:4567–4580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-013-1814-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Havner K S (2004) On the onset of necking in the tensile test. Int J Plast:20, 4–5, 965–978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2003.05.004

Download references

Acknowledgements

The paper was developed with the support from the ERDF project Pre-Application Research of Functionally Graduated Materials by Additive Technologies, No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/17_048/0007350.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. COMTES FHT a.s., Průmyslová 995, 334 41, Dobřany, Czech Republic

    Martina Koukolíková, Sylwia Rzepa, Michal Brázda & Jan Džugan

  2. Department of Mechanical Engineering and Environmental Technology, OTH Amberg – Weiden, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Ring 23, 92224, Amberg, Germany

    Thomas Simson

Authors
  1. Martina Koukolíková
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thomas Simson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sylwia Rzepa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michal Brázda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jan Džugan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

MK involved in conceptualization, investigation and writing–original draft. TS involved in investigation and review and editing. SR involved in investigation and writing–review and editing. MB involve in investigation. JD involved in supervision, funding and review and editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Martina Koukolíková.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Handling Editor: Sophie Primig.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Koukolíková, M., Simson, T., Rzepa, S. et al. The influence of laser power on the interfaces of functionally graded materials fabricated by powder-based directed energy deposition. J Mater Sci 57, 13695–13723 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-022-07453-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-022-07453-9

Search

Navigation