Abstract
In this article, the currently available radiologic techniques for assessing osteoporosis are reviewed. Density measurements of the skeleton using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) are clinically indicated for the assessment of osteoporosis and for the evaluation of therapies. DXA is the most widely used technique for identifying patients with osteoporosis. Quantitative computed tomography (QCT) is the only method, which provides a volumetric density. Unlike DXA, QCT allows for selective trabecular measurement and is less sensitive to degenerative diseases of the spine. The analysis of bone structure in conjunction with bone density is an exciting new field in the assessment of osteoporosis. High-resolution multi-slice CT and micro-CT are useful tools for the assessment of bone microarchitecture. A growing literature indicates that quantitative ultrasound (QUS) techniques are capable of assessing fracture risk. Although the ease of use and the absence of ionizing radiation make QUS attractive, the specific role of QUS techniques in clinical practice needs further determination. Considerable progress has been made in the development of MR techniques for assessing osteoporosis during the last few years. In addition to relaxometry techniques, high-resolution MR imaging, diffusion MR imaging and in-vivo MR spectroscopy may be used to quantify trabecular bone architecture and mineral composition.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Compston JE, Papapoulos SE, Blanchard F (1998) Report on osteoporosis in the European Community: current status and recommendations for the future. Osteoporos Int 8:531–534
Link TM, Majumdar S, Grampp S, Guglielmi G, van Kuijk C, Imhof H, Gluer C, Adams JE (1999) Imaging of trabecular bone structure in osteoporosis. Eur Radiol 9:1781–1788
Pham T, Azulay-Parrado J, Champsaur P, Chagnaud C, Legre V, Lafforgue P (2005) “Occult” osteoporotic vertebral fractures. Spine 30:2430–2435
Gehlbach SH, Bigelow C, Heimisdottir M et al (2000) Recognition of vertebral fracture in a clinical setting. Osteoporos Int 11:577–582
Genant HK, Wu CY, van Kuijk C, Nevitt MC (1993) Vertebral fracture assessment using a semiquantitative technique. J Bone Miner Res 8:1137–1148
Wu CY, Li J, Jergas M, Genant HK (1995) Comparison of semiquantitative and quantitative techniques for the assessment of prevalent and incident vertebral fractures. Osteoporos Int 5:354–370
Lunt M, O’Neill TW, Felsenberg D et al (2003) Characteristics of a prevalent vertebral deformity predict subsequent vertebral fracture: results from the European Prospective Osteoporosis Study (EPOS). Bone 33:505–513
Link TM, Guglielmi G, van Kuijk C, Adams JE (2005) Radiologic assessment of osteoporotic vertebral fractures: diagnostic and prognostic implications. Eur Radiol 15:1521–1532
Wintermark M, Mouhsine E, Theumann N et al (2003) Thoracolumbar spine fractures in patients who have sustained severe trauma: depiction with multi-detector row CT. Radiology 227:681–689
Stabler A, Schneider P, Link TM et al (1999) Intravertebral vacuum phenomenon following fractures: CT study on frequency and etiology. J Comput Assist Tomogr 23:976–980
Bauer JS, Muller D, Ambekar A et al (2006) Detection of osteoporotic vertebral fractures using multidetector CT. Osteoporos Int 17:608–615
Baur A, Stabler A, Arbogast S, Duerr HR, Barti R, Reiser M (2002) Acute osteoporotic and neoplastic vertebral compression fractures: fluid sign at MR imaging. Radiology 225:730–735
Baur A, Dietrcich O, Reiser M (2003) Diffusion-weighted imaging of bone marrow: current status. Eur Radiol 13:1699–1708
Gluer CC, Blake G, Blunt BA, Jergas M, Genant HK (1995) Accurate assessment of precision errors: how to measure the reproducibility of bone densitometry techniques. Osteoporos Int 5:262–270
Grampp S, Jergas M, Gluer CC, Lang P, Brastow P, Genant HK (1993) Radiologic diagnosis of osteoporosis: current methods and perspectives. Radiol Clin North Am 31:1131–1145
Gluer CC (1999) Monitoring skeletal changes by radiological techniques. J Bone Miner Res 14:1952–1962
Adams JE (2003) Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. In: Grampp S (ed) Radiology of osteoporosis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Damilakis J, Papadokostakis G, Perisinakis K, Hadjipavlou A, Gourtsoyiannis N (2003) Can radial bone mineral density and quantitative ultrasound measurements reduce the number of women who need axial density skeletal assessment? Osteoporos Int 14:688–693
van Rijn RR, van der Sluis IM, Link TM, Grampp S, Guglielmi G, Imhof H, Gluer C, Adams JE, van Kuijk C (2003) Bone densitometry in children: a critical appraisal. Eur Radiol 13:700–710
Melton LJ III, Looker A, Shepherd J, O’Connor M, Achenbach S, Riggs B, Khosla S (2005) Osteoporosis assessment by whole body region vs. site-specific DXA. Osteoporos Int 16:1558–1564
Marshall D, Johnell O, Nilsson BE (1996) Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ 312:1254–1259
Augat P, Fuerst T, Genant HK (1998) Quantitative bone mineral assessment at the forearm: a review. Osteoporos Int 8:299–310
Blake GM, Harrison EJ, Adams JE (2004) Dual X-ray absorptiometry: cross-calibration of a new fan-beam system. Calcif Tissue Int 75:7–14
Blake GM, Wahner H, Fogelman I (1999) The evaluation of osteoporosis: dual energy x-ray absorptiometry and ultrasound in clinical practice. Dunitz, London
Prevrhal S, Lu Y, Genant HK, Toschke JO, Shepherd JA (2005) Towards standardization of dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at the forearm: a common region of interest (ROI) improves the comparability among DXA devices. Calcif Tissue Int 76:348–354
Damilakis J, Perisinakis K, Gourtsoyiannis N (2001) Imaging ultrasonometry of the calcaneus: optimum T-score thresholds for the identification of osteoporotic subjects. Calcif Tissue Int 68:219–224
Origgi D, Vigorito S, Villa G, Bellomi M, Tosi G (2006) Survey of computed tomography techniques and absorbed dose in Italian hospitals: a comparison between two methods to estimate the dose-length product and the effective dose and to verify fulfilment of the diagnostic reference levels. Eur Radiol 16:227–237
Stratakis J, Damilakis J, Gourtsoyiannis N (2005) Organ and effective dose conversion coefficients for radiographic examinations of the pediatric skull estimated by Monte Carlo methods. Eur Radiol 15:1948–1958
Damilakis J, Perisinakis K, Vrahoriti H, Kontakis G, Varveris H, Gourtsoyiannis N (2002) Embryo/fetus radiation dose and risk from dual x-ray absorptiometry examinations. Osteoporos Int 13:716–722
Rosholm A, Hyldstrup L, Baeksgaard L, Grunkin M, Thodberg HH (2001) Estimation of bone mineral density by digital x-ray radiogrammetry: theoretical background and clinical testing. Osteoporos Int 12:961–969
Molina Toledo VA, Jergas M (2006) Age-related changes in cortical bone mass: data from a German female cohort. Eur Radiol 16:811–817
Ward KA, Cotton J, Adams JE (2003) A technical and clinical evaluation of digital X-ray radiogrammetry. Osteoporos Int 14:389–395
Bouxsein M, Palermo L, Yeung C, Black D (2002) Digital X-ray radiogrammetry predicts hip, wrist and vertebral fracture risk in elderly women: a prospective analysis from the study of osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int 13:358–365
Fiter J, Nolla JM, Gomez-Vaquero C, Martinez-Aguila D, Valverde J, Roig-Escofet D (2001) A comparative study of computed digital absorptiometry and conventional dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in postomenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 12:565–569
Guglielmi G, Lang TF (2002) Quantitative computed tomography. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 6:219–227
Karantanas AH, Kalef-Ezra J, Glaros D (1991) Limitations of quantitative computed tomography in corticosteroid induced osteopenia. Acta Radiol 32:339–341
Karantanas AH, Kalef-Ezra J, Glaros D (1991) Quantitative computed tomography for bone mineral measurement: technical aspects, dosimetry, normal data and clinical applications. Br J Radiol 64:298–304
Lang TF, Augat P, Lane NE, Genant HK (1998) Trochanteric hip fracture: strong association with spinal trabecular bone mineral density measured with quantitative CT. Radiology 209:525–530
Lang TF, Guglielmi G, van Kuijk C, De Serio A, Cammisa M, Genant HK (2002) Measurement of bone mineral density at the spine and proximal femur by volumetric quantitative computed tomography and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in elderly women with and without vertebral fractures. Bone 30:247–250
Black DM, Greenspan SL, Ensrud KE, Palermo L, McGowan JA, Lang TF, Gamero P, Bouxsein ML, Bilezikian JP, Rosen CJ (2003) The effects of parathyroid hormone and alendronate alone or in combination in postmenopausal osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 349:1207–1215
Wachter NJ, Krischak GD, Mentzel M, Sarkar MR, Ebinger T, Kinzl L, Claes L, Augat P (2002) Correlation of bone mineral density with strength and microstructural parameters of cortical bone in vitro. Bone 31:90–95
Gatti D, Rossini M, Zamberlan N, Braga V, Fracassi E, Adami S (1996) Effect of aging on trabecular and compact bone components of proximal and ultradistal radius. Osteoporos Int 6:55–360
Grampp S, Lang P, Jergas M, Gluer CC, Mathur A, Engelke K, Genant HK (1995) Assessment of the skeletal status by peripheral quantitative computed tomography of the forearm-short-term precision in vivo and comparison to dual x-ray absorptiometry. J Bone Miner Res 10:1566–1576
Boutroy S, Bouxsein ML, Munoz F, Delmas PD (2005) In vivo assessment of trabecular bone microarchitecture by high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:6508–6515
Ward KA, Adams JE, Hangartner TN (2005) Recommendations for thresholds for cortical bone geometry and density measurement by pQCT. Calcif Tissue Int 77:275–280
Link TM, Bauer J, Kollstedt A, Stumpf I, Hudelmaier M, Settles M, Majumdar S, Lochmuller EM, Eckstein F (2004) Trabecular bone structure of the distal radius, the calcaneus, and the spine: Which site predicts fracture status of the spine best? Invest Radiol 39:487–497
Patel PV, Prevrhal S, Bauer JS, Phan C, Eckstein F, Lochmuller EM, Majumdar S, Link TM (2005) Trabecular bone structure obtained from multislice spiral computed tomography of the calcaneus predicts osteoporotic vertebral deformities. J Comput Assist Tomogr 29:246–253
Gluer CC, Wu CY, Jergas M, Goldstein SA, Genant HK (1994) Three quantitative ultrasound parameters reflect bone structure. Calcif Tissue Int 55:46–52
Barkmann R, Gluer CC (2003) Quantitative ultrasound. In: Grampp S (ed) Radiology of osteoporosis. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Damilakis J, Perisinakis K, Vagios E, Tsinikas D, Gourtsoyiannis N (1998) Effect of region of interest location on ultrasound measurements of the calcaneus. Calcif Tissue Int 63:300–305
Barkmann R, Kantorovich E, Singal C, Hans D, Genant HK, Heller M, Gluer CC (2000) A new method for quantitative ultrasound measurements at multiple skeletal sites: first results of precision and fracture discrimination. J Clin Densitom 3:1–7
Damilakis J, Papadokostakis G, Vrahoriti H, Tsagaraki I, Perisinakis K, Hadjipavlou A, Gourtsoyiannis N (2003) Ultrasound velocity through the cortex of phalanges, radius, and tibia in normal and osteoporotic postmenopausal women using a new multisite quantitative ultrasound device. Invest Radiol 38:207–211
Guglielmi G, Njeh CF, de Terlizzi F, De Serio DA, Scillitani A, Gammisa M, Fan B, Lu Y, Genant HK (2003) Phalangeal quantitative ultrasound, phalangeal morphometric variables and vertebral fracture discrimination. Calcif Tissue Int 72:469–477
Damilakis J, Perisinakis K, Gourtsoyiannis N (2001) Imaging ultrasonometry of the calcaneus: optimum T-score thresholds for the identification of osteoporotic subjects. Calcif Tissue Int 68:219–224
Gluer CC, Hans D (1999) How to use ultrasound for risk assessment: a need for defining strategies. Osteoporos Int 9:193–195
Gluer CC, Eastell R, Reid DM (2005) Association of five quantitative ultrasound devices and bone densitometry with osteoporotic vertebral fractures in a population-based sample: the OPUS study. J Bone Miner Res 20:536–538
Stewart A, Kumar V, Reid DM (2006) Long-term fracture prediction by DXA and QUS: a 10-year prospective study. J Bone Miner Res 21:413–418
Link MT, Majumdar S, Augat P, Lin CJ, Newitt D, Lane EN, Genant HK (1998) Proximal Femur: assessment for osteoporosis with T2* decay characteristics at MR imaging. Radiology 209:531–536
Wehrli FW, Hopkins JA, Hwang SN, Song HK, Snyder PJ, Haddad JC (2000) Cross-sectional study of osteopenia with quantitative MR imaging and bone densitometry. Radiology 217:527–538
Capuani S, Alessandri FM, Bifone A, Maraviglia B (2002) Multiple spin echoes for the evaluation of trabecular bone quality. MAGMA 14:3–9
Maris TG, Damilakis J, Sideri L, Deimling M, Papadokostakis G, Papakonstantinou O, Gourtsoyiannis N (2004) Assessment of the skeletal status by MR relaxometry techniques of the lumbar spine: comparison with dual X-ray absorptiometry. Eur J Radiol 50:245–256
Link TM, Vieth V, Matheis J, Newitt D, Lu Ying, Rummeny EJ, Majumdar S (2002) Bone structure of the distal radius and the calcaneus vs. BMD of the spine and proximal femur in the prediction of osteoporotic spine fractures. Eur Radiol 12:401–408
Jara H, Wehrli F, Chung H, Ford J (1993) High resolution variable flip angle 3D MR imaging of trabecular microstructure in vivo. Magn Reson Med 29:528–539
Krug R, Banerjee S, Han ET, Newitt DC, Link TM, Majumdar S (2005) Feasibility of in vivo structural analysis of high-resolution magnetic resonance images of the proximal femur. Osteoporos Int 16:1307–1314
Phan CM, Matsuura M, Bauer JS, Dunn TC, Newitt D, Lochmueller EM, Eckstein F, Majumdar S, Link TM (2006) Trabecular bone structure of the calcaneus: comparison of MR imaging at 3.0 and 1.5T with micro-CT as the standard of reference. Radiology 239(2):488–496
Baur A, Stabler A, Bruning R, Bartl R, Krodel A, Reiser M, Deimling M (1998) Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of bone marrow: differentiation of benign versus pathologic compression fractures. Radiology 207:349–356
Yeung KWD, Wong YSS, Griffith FJ, Lau MCE (2004) Bone marrow diffusion in osteoporosis: evaluation with quantitative MR diffusion imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 19:222–228
Griffith FJ, Yeung KWD, Antonio EG, Lee KHF, Hong WLA, Wong YSS, Lau MCE, Leung CP (2005) Vertebral bone mineral density, marrow perfusion and fat content in healthy men and men with osteoporosis: dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging and MR spectroscopy. Radiology 236:945–951
Schellinger D, Lin SC, Fertikh D, Lee SJ, Lauerman CW, Henderson F, Davis B (2000) Normal lumbar vertebrae: anatomic, age and sex variance in subjects at proton MR spectroscopy: initial experience. Radiology 215:910–916
Schellinger D, Lin SC, Hatipoglu GH, Fertikh D (2001) Potential value of vertebral proton MR spectroscopy in determining bone weakness. Am J Neuroradiol 22:1620–1627
Yeung KWD, Griffith FJ, Antonio EG, Lee KHF, Woo J, Leung CP (2005) Osteoporosis is associated with increased marrow fat content and decreased marrow fat unsaturation: a proton MR spectroscopy study. J Magn Reson Imaging 22:279–285
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Damilakis, J., Maris, T.G. & Karantanas, A.H. An update on the assessment of osteoporosis using radiologic techniques. Eur Radiol 17, 1591–1602 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-006-0511-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-006-0511-z