Abstract
The arboreal embryos of red-eyed treefrogs (Agalychnis callidryas) hatch prematurely to escape from egg predators, and escape success increases with age. We assessed developmental changes in the behavior and hatching performance of embryos attacked by wasps (Polybia rejecta) and their contributions to improved embryo survival. We recorded videos of 4- and 5-day-old embryos exposed to wasp attacks and determined each embryo’s fate. For a stratified random sample of embryos that escaped and died, we determined the occurrence, sequence, and timing of events during wasp-embryo interactions. We constructed path diagrams of event sequences, tested for age effects on transition probabilities, and measured the durations of periods between key events. Overall, escape success was 38% higher in older embryos. They were more likely to hatch pre-emptively than younger ones, thus less likely to experience direct attacks, suggesting that developmental gains in mechanosensory sensitivity may increase hatching responses to indirect cues. During direct attacks, embryos were equally likely to be captured by wasps at both ages, and hatching speed was similar, suggesting no relevant difference in escape-hatching performance. After a wasp ruptured their egg capsule, older embryos were more likely to exit, and they did so much sooner; younger embryos remained in ruptured capsules for longer and were more likely to be attacked again. This developmental change in embryo behavior indicates decreased tolerance for egg-stage risk as the chance of tadpole survival increases, suggesting that ontogenetic adaptation to changing risk trade-offs contributes strongly to the developmental increase in escape success.
Significance statement
As animals develop, both their abilities and the optimal strategies for antipredator defense change, and some show ontogenetic adaptation of defensive behavior. This is documented in the larval and juvenile stages but rarely examined during the embryonic period, when development is fastest. We document substantial changes in embryo behavior across a 1-day period following the onset of predator-induced hatching in red-eyed treefrogs, with rapidly decreasing tolerance of egg-stage risk contributing to higher survival under wasp predation as the costs of hatching decrease. This provides evidence for ontogenetic adaptation of defensive behavior in a natural predation context and across an earlier developmental period than previously known, thereby strengthening results from prior work with vibration playbacks across later developmental stages. It suggests that even during periods of rapid development of morphology and abilities, understanding behavioral decisions may be crucial to explaining changes in survival.
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Data availability
The data collected for and analyzed in this paper are available on Dryad at 10.5061/dryad.63xsj3v6h.
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Acknowledgements
We thank Julie Jung, María José Salazar Nicholls, Karina Escobar, and Crystal Tippett for their assistance with egg collection and care in the field. We thank members of the Gamboa Frog Group at STRI and the Egg Science Research Group at Boston University for discussions of this work at multiple stages and for feedback on an earlier version of the manuscript. We thank two anonymous reviewers for feedback that improved the manuscript.
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This research was funded by the National Science Foundation (IOS-1354072 to KMW), Boston University, and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. AC and EKG were funded by Boston University’s Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program.
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KMW and AC designed the experiment. AC conducted the experiment. AC and EKG analyzed the videos. EKG and BAG analyzed the data. EKG drafted the manuscript. KW and BG edited the manuscript. All authors reviewed the final manuscript. KMW obtained project funding and supervised the work.
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All applicable international, national, and institutional guidelines for the use of animals were followed. This research was conducted with IACUC approval from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (2014–0601-2017-A5) and Boston University (14–008) under research permit No. SE/A-59–16 from the Panamanian Ministerio de Ambiente.
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Gomez, E.K., Chaiyasarikul, A., Güell, B.A. et al. Developmental changes in red-eyed treefrog embryo behavior increase escape-hatching success in wasp attacks. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 77, 52 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-023-03324-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-023-03324-8