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Spelling well despite developmental language disorder: what makes it possible?

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Abstract

The goal of the study was to investigate the overlap between developmental language disorder (DLD) and developmental dyslexia, identified through spelling difficulties (SD), in Russian-speaking children. In particular, we studied the role of phoneme awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), pseudoword repetition (PWR), morphological (MA), and orthographic awareness (OA) in differentiating between children with DLD who have SD from children with DLD who are average spellers by comparing the two groups to each other, to typically developing children as well as children with SD but without spoken language deficits. One hundred forty-nine children, aged 10.40 to 14.00 years, participated in the study. The results indicated that the SD, DLD, and DLD/SD groups did not differ from each other on PA and RAN Letters and underperformed in comparison to the control groups. However, whereas the children with written language deficits (SD and DLD/SD groups) underperformed on RAN Objects and Digits, PWR, OA, and MA, the children with DLD and no SD performed similarly to the children from the control groups on these measures. In contrast, the two groups with spoken language deficits (DLD and DLD/SD) underperformed on RAN Colors in comparison to the control groups and the group of children with SD only. The results support the notion that those children with DLD who have unimpaired PWR and RAN skills are able to overcome their weaknesses in spoken language and PA and acquire basic literacy on a par with their age peers with typical language. We also argue that our findings support a multifactorial model of DLD.

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Notes

  1. There are various labels used to refer to the condition in question, of which, the most commonly used is Specific Language Impairment (SLI). We will use the term DLD to refer to the clinical condition(s) in question, including when discussing or citing studies that use alternative terms. Our view is that, although there may be distinct subtypes of the condition(s) in question, the DLD label can be applied as a general term if it is (1) a disorder of language (not speech), (2) of a developmental, not acquired, nature, (3) primary (not a direct consequence of another syndromic developmental or genomic disorder), and (4) appropriate exclusionary criteria are applicable/applied (e.g., normal hearing and non-verbal IQ above the cutoff for intellectual disability).

  2. Although it is a common phenomenon, there are languages whose orthographies are more closely reflective of the pronunciation rather than the underlying phonemic or morphemic form. One example is Byelorussian, in which unstressed reduced vowels are spelled as they are pronounced (e.g., górad (town), garadók (“little town”), cf. with the Russian spellings of these words (gorod, gorodok). This principle in Byelorussian, however, only applies to vowels.

  3. Whether RAN deficits can be present without deficits in PA has been a subject of some controversy because such cases have been rather difficult to find (Pennington et al., 2001; Vaessen, Gerretsen, & Blomert, 2009). However, even if this is the case, this does not invalidate the multifactorial view: even if RAN is indeed distinct from PA, the two are clearly related. Therefore, we may expect the two to co-occur in most cases.

  4. Although some theories of DLD claim that a single phonological processing deficit is a core causal factor in DLD (e.g., Joanisse, 2004), there is strong empirical support that the complete range of oral language impairments (particularly in the population involved in the current study) cannot be fully explained by phonological deficits (Bishop, Adams, & Norbury, 2006; Rakhlin et al., 2013; van der Lely, 2005). Children with DLD with and without phonological processing deficits may constitute different subtypes of DLD but are likely to exhibit similar performance on many clinical language assessments measuring general language development typically used to diagnose DLD.

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Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant R01 DC007665 to Elena L. Grigorenko. Grantees undertaking such projects are encouraged to express freely their professional judgment. This article, therefore, does not necessarily reflect the position or policies of the National Institutes of Health, and no official endorsement should be inferred. We thank Roman Koposov, Anastasia Strelina, and numerous others from Northern State Medical Academy (Arkhangelsk, Russia) for their help with data collection.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 South Frontage Road, New Haven, CT, 06519-1124, USA

    Natalia Rakhlin, Sergey A. Kornilov & Elena L. Grigorenko

  2. Department of Psychology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil

    Cláudia Cardoso-Martins

  3. University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA

    Sergey A. Kornilov

  4. Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, CT, USA

    Sergey A. Kornilov & Elena L. Grigorenko

  5. Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation

    Sergey A. Kornilov & Elena L. Grigorenko

  6. Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

    Elena L. Grigorenko

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  1. Natalia Rakhlin
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Rakhlin, N., Cardoso-Martins, C., Kornilov, S.A. et al. Spelling well despite developmental language disorder: what makes it possible?. Ann. of Dyslexia 63, 253–273 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-013-0084-x

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