Abstract
The accumulation of salts in soil is an environmental threat affecting plant growth and crop yield. Linseed or flax is an ancient crop that has multifarious utilities in terms of industrial oil, textile fiber, and products. Salt susceptibility adversely affects linseed production, particularly to meet the growing demand for nutritional and nutraceutical products. In the present study, the ameliorative potential of gibberellic acid (GA3) and calcium (Ca2+) in mitigating the adverse effects of chloride-dominated salinity stress on the growth and physiological and biochemical processes in linseed was determined. Severe salinity treatment (10 dSm−1) resulted in stunted growth of tested linseed genotypes causing a significant reduction in biomass while proline content, phenol, H2O2, lipid peroxidation, and DPPH activity were increased in comparison to control. The exogenous application of 10−6 M GA3 and/or 10 mg CaCl2 kg−1 was found to mitigate the adverse effects of salinity stress. The mitigation was accomplished through the improvement of growth indicators, increased osmoprotectants such as proline and phenol content, stimulating DPPH activity, and reduction of H2O2 content and lipid peroxidation. The comparative evaluation of different saline treatments imposed individually and in combination with GA3 and Ca2+ revealed that combined GA3 and Ca2+ application exhibited synergistic effects and was most effective in mitigating the negative impacts of salt stress. The present study unravels the ameliorative role of GA3 and Ca2+ (individual or combined) in the physiologic-biochemical adaptive response of linseed plants grown under chloride-dominated salinity and thus aids in a better understanding of the underlying tolerance mechanisms of plants to withstand stress in saline environments.
Graphical Abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article. Further enquiries may be directed to the corresponding author.
References
Abdelgawad H, Momtaz GZ, Hegab M et al (2018) Regulatory role of silicon in mediating differential stress tolerance responses in two contrasting tomato genotypes under osmotic stress. Front Plant Sci 9:1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01475
Adnan M, Fahad S, Muhammad Z et al (2020) Coupling phosphate-solubilizing bacteria with phosphorus supplements improve maize phosphorus acquisition and growth under lime-induced salinity stress. Plants 9:900. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9070900
Al-Maskri A, Al-Kharusi L, Al-Miqbali H et al (2010) Effects of salinity stress on growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) under closed-recycle nutrient film technique. Int J Agric Biol 12(3):377–380
Alonso-Ramírez A, Rodríguez D, Reyes D et al (2009) Evidence for a role of gibberellins in salicylic acid-modulated early plant responses to abiotic stress in Arabidopsis seeds. Plant Physiol 150:1335–1344. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.109.139352
Amor NB, Megdiche W, Jimenez A et al (2010) The effect of calcium on the antioxidant systems in the halophyte Cakile maritima under salt stress. Acta Physiol Plant 32:453–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-009-0420-2
Asgari F, Dianat M (2021) Effects of silicon on some morphological and physiological traits of rose (Rosa chinensis var. minima) plants grown under salinity stress. J Plant Nutr 44(6):536–549. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2020.1845367Bates
Bates LS, Waldren RP, Teare ID (1973) Rapid determination of free proline for water-stress studies. Plant Soil 39:205–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00018060
Brand-Williams W, Cuvelier ME, Berset CLWT (1995) Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT-Food Sci Tech 28(1):25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0023-6438(95)80008-5
Cha-Um S, Kirdmanee C (2009) Effect of salt stress on proline accumulation, photosynthetic ability and growth characters in two maize cultivars. Pak J Bot 41:87–98
Choudhary MA, Ghafoor A, Asif M et al (2010) Effect of irrigation techniques on wheat production and water saving in soils. Soil Environ 29:69–72
Dubey S, Bhargava A, Fuentes F et al (2020) Effect of salinity stress on yield and quality parameters in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). Not Bot Horti Agrobot Cluj Napoca 48(2):954–966. https://doi.org/10.15835/nbha48211861
Fahad S, Bano A (2012) Effect of salicylic acid on physiological and biochemical characterization of maize grown in the saline area. Pak J Bot 44:1433–1438
Fahad S, Hussain S, Saud S et al (2015) A biochar application protects rice pollen from high-temperature stress. Plant Physiol Biochem 96:281–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2015.08.009
Fahad S, Hussain S, Saud S et al (2016) A combined application of biochar and phosphorus alleviates heat-induced adversities on physiological, agronomical and quality attributes of rice. Plant Physiol Biochem 103:191–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.03.001
Fahad S, Hussain S, Saud S et al (2016b) Exogenously applied plant growth regulators affect heat-stressed rice pollens. J Agron Crop Sci 202:139–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12148
Fahad S, Hussain S, Saud S et al (2016c) Exogenously applied plant growth regulators enhance the morphophysiological growth and yield of rice under high temperature. Front Plant Sci 7:1250. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.01250
Farooq M, Wahid A, Lee DJ (2009) Exogenously applied polyamines increase drought tolerance of rice by improving leaf water status, photosynthesis and membrane properties. Acta Physiol Plant 31:937–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-009-0307-2
Fatima A, Hussain S, Hussain S et al (2021) Differential morphophysiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of maize hybrids to salinity and alkalinity stresses. Agron 11:1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11061150
Garrido Y, Tudela JA, Marín A et al (2014) Physiological, phytochemical and structural changes of multi-leaf lettuce caused by salt stress. J Sci Food Agric 94:1592–1599. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6462
Ghobadi-Namin L, Etminanb A, Ghanavatic F et al (2020) Antioxidants and antioxidant methods: an updated overview. J Nat Fiber 94:651–715
Ghosh S, Mitra S, Paul A (2015) Physiochemical studies of sodium chloride on mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) and its possible recovery with spermine and gibberellic acid. Sci World J 2015:858016. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/858016
Halliwell B (2006) Reactive species and antioxidants. Redox biology is a fundamental theme of aerobic life. Plant Physiol 141:312–322. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.106.077073
Hassan MU, Aamer M, Chattha MU (2020) The critical role of zinc in plants facing the drought stress. Agric 10:396. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10090396
Heath RL, Packer L (1968) Photoperoxidation in isolated chloroplasts. I. Kinetic and stoichiometry of fatty acid peroxidation. Arch Biochem Biophys 125:189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-9861(68)90654-1
Hirschi KD (2004) The calcium conundrum. Both versatile nutrient and specific signal. Plant Physiol 136:2438–2442. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.104.046490
Husen A, Iqbal M, Aref IM (2016) IAA-induced alteration in growth and photosynthesis of pea (Pisum sativum L.) plants grown under salt stress. J Environ Biol 37(3):421–429
Husen A, Iqbal M, Khanam N et al (2019) Modulation of salt-stress tolerance of Niger (Guizotia abyssinica), an oilseed plant, by application of salicylic acid. J Environ Biol 40(1):96–104. https://doi.org/10.22438/jeb/40/1/MRN-808
Iqbal M, Ashraf M (2013) Gibberellic acid mediated induction of salt tolerance in wheat plants: growth, ionic partitioning, photosynthesis, yield and hormonal homeostasis. Environ Exp Bot 86:76–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2010.06.002
Issam N, Kawther M, Haythem M et al (2012) Effects of CaCl2 pretreatment on antioxidant enzyme and leaf lipid content of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) seedlings under cadmium stress. Plant Growth Regul 68:37–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-012-9691-5
Kachroo A, Lapchyk L, Fukushige H et al (2003) Plastidial fatty acid signaling modulates salicylic acid–and jasmonic acid-mediated defense pathways in the Arabidopsis ssi2 mutant. Plant Cell 15:2952–2965. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.017301
Karle SB, Guru A, Dwivedi P et al (2021) Insights into the role of gasotransmitters mediating salt stress responses in plants. J Plant Growth Regul 0123456789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-020-10293-z
Kaur H, Bhardwaj RD, Grewal SK (2017) Mitigation of salinity-induced oxidative damage in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings by exogenous application of phenolic acids. Acta Physiol Plant 39:221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-017-2521-7
Kaur V, Yadav R, Wankhede DP (2017) Linseed genetic resources for climate change intervention and future breeding. J Appl Nat Sci 9:1112–1118. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v9i2.1331
Kaur V, Yadav SK, Wankhede DP et al (2020) Cloning and characterization of a gene encoding MIZ1, a domain of unknown function protein and its role in salt and drought stress in rice. Protoplasma 257:475–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00709-019-01452-5
Kaur V, Gomashe SG, Aravind J et al (2023) Multi-environment phenotyping of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) germplasm for morphological and seed quality traits to assemble a core collection. Ind Crops Prod 206:117657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.117657
Kaur V, Singh M, Wankhede DP et al (2023b) Diversity of Linum genetic resources in global genebanks: from agro-morphological characterisation to novel genomic technologies – a review. Front Nutr 10:1165580. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1165580
Kolupaev YE, Akinina GE, Mokrousov AV (2005) Induction of heat tolerance in wheat coleoptiles by calcium ions and its relation to oxidative stress. Russ J Plant Physiol 52:199–204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11183-005-0030-9
Lalarukh I, Shahbaz M (2018) Alpha-tocopherol induced modulations in morpho-physiological attributes of sunflower (Helianthus annuus) when grown under saline environment. Int J Agric Biol 20:661–668. https://doi.org/10.17957/IJAB/15.0538
Langyan S, Yadava P, Khan FN et al (2023) Trends and advances in pre- and post-harvest processing of linseed oil for quality food and health products. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 30:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2023.2280768
Madea Y, Yoshiba M, Tadano T (2005) Comparison of Ca effect on the salt tolerance of suspension cells and intact plants of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L., cv. Bright Yellow-2). Soil Sci Plant Nutr 51:485–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-0765.2005.tb00056.x
Maggio A, Miyazaki S, Veronese P et al (2002) Does proline accumulation play an active role in stress-induced growth reduction? Plant J 31:699–712. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-313x.2002.01389.x
Mahajan S, Pandey GK, Tuteja N (2008) Calcium- and salt-stress signaling in plants: shedding light on SOS pathway. Arch Biochem Biophys 471:146–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abb.2008.01.010
Moneruzzaman KM, Hossain ABS, Normaniza O et al (2011) Growth, yield and quality responses to gibberellic acid (GA) of wax apple Syzygium samarangense var. jambu air madu fruits grown under field conditions. Afr J Biotechnol 10:11911–11918
Parida AK, Das AB (2005) Salt tolerance and salinity effects on plants: a review. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf Mar 60(3):324–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2004.06.010
Parihar P, Singh S, Singh R et al (2015) Effect of salinity stress on plants and its tolerance strategies: a review. Environ Sci pollut Res 22:4056–4075. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3739-1
Povkhova LV, Melnikova NV, Rozhmina TA et al (2021) Genes associated with the flax plant type (oil or fiber) identified based on genome and transcriptome sequencing data. Plants 10:2616. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10122616
Qayyum MA, Bashir F, Maqbool MM et al (2019) Implications of saline water irrigation for linseed on seed germination, seedling survival and growth potential. Sarhad J Agric 35:1289–1297. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2019/35.4.1289.1297
Rahneshan Z, Nasibi F, Moghadam AA (2018) Effects of salinity stress on some growth, physiological, biochemical parameters and nutrients in two pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) rootstocks. J Plant Interact 13:73–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/17429145.2018.1424355
Rao A, Ahmad SD, Sabir SM et al (2013) Antioxidant activity and lipid peroxidation of selected wheat cultivars under salt stress. J Med Plant Res 7:155–164. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR12.623
Rout S, Beura S, Khare N et al (2017) Effect of seed pre-treatment with different concentrations of gibberellic acid (GA3) on seed germination and seedling growth of Cassia fistula L. J Med Plants Stud 5:135–138
Ruiz JM, Rivero RM, López-Cantarero I et al (2003) Role of Ca2+ in the metabolism of phenolic compounds in tobacco leaves (Nicotiana tabacum L.). Plant Growth Regul 41:173–177. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1027358423187
Sadak MS, Bakry BA (2020) Zinc-oxide and nano ZnO oxide effects on growth, some biochemical aspects, yield quantity, and quality of flax (Linum uitatissimum L.) in absence and presence of compost under sandy soil. Bull Natl Res Cent 44:98. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-020-00348-2
Sahin U, Ekinci M, Ors S et al (2018) Effects of individual and combined effects of salinity and drought on physiological, nutritional and biochemical properties of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Sci Hortic 240:196–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2018.06.016
Saud S, Chen Y, Long B et al (2013) The different impact on the growth of cool season turf grass under the various conditions on salinity and drought stress. Int J Agric Sci Res 3:77–84
Schaller F, Schaller A, Stintzi A (2004) Biosynthesis and metabolism of jasmonates. J Plant Growth Regul 23:179–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-004-0047-x
Sheoran OP, Tonk DS, Kaushik LS et al (1998) Statistical software package for agricultural research workers. Department of Mathematics Statistics, CCS HAU, Hisar, pp 139–143
Singh S, Singh P, Tomar RS et al (2022) Proline: a key player to regulate biotic and abiotic stress in plants. In Towards sustainable natural resources: monitoring and managing ecosystem biodiversity 333–346. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06443-2_18
Smith GS, Johnston CM, Cornforth IS (1983) Comparison of nutrient solutions for growth of plants in sand culture. The New Phytol 94:537–548. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2434207
Song WY, Zhang ZB, Shao HB et al (2008) Relationship between calcium decoding elements and plant abiotic-stress resistance. Int J Biol Sci 4:116–125. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.4.116
Song M, Yujing Y, Sun Y et al (2020) Antioxidant, cytotoxicity, and anti-human lung cancer properties of Linum usitatissimum seed aqueous extract in in vitro conditions: a pre-clinical trial study. Arch Med Sci. https://doi.org/10.5114/aoms/136340
Sonia Kaur V, Yadav SK et al (2023) Development and evaluation of barley mini-core collection for salinity tolerance and identification of novel haplotypic variants for HvRAF. Plant Soil 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-023-06397-6
Stefanov MA, Rashkov GD, Yotsova EK et al (2021) Different sensitivity levels of the photosynthetic apparatus in Zea mays L. and Sorghum bicolor L. under salt stress. Plants 10:14–69. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10071469
Sudharmaidevi CR, Thampatti KCM, Saifudeen N (2017) Rapid production of organic fertilizer from degradable waste by thermochemical processing. Int J Recycl Org Waste Agricult 6:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-016-0147-1
Sultan I, Khan I, Chattha MU et al (2021) Improved salinity tolerance in early growth stage of maize through salicylic acid foliar application. Ital J Agron 16:1810. https://doi.org/10.4081/ija.2021.1810
Sun J, Wang MJ, Ding MQ et al (2010) H2O2 and cytosolic Ca2+ signals triggered by the PM H+-coupled transport system mediate K+/Na+ homeostasis in NaCl-stressed Populus euphratica cells. Plant Cell Environ 33:943–958. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2010.02118.x
Taârit MB, Msaada K, Hosni K et al (2012) Fatty acids, phenolic changes and antioxidant activity of clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) rosette leaves grown under saline conditions. Ind Crops Prod 38:58–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.01.002
Tadele KT, Zerssa GW (2023) Biostimulants and phytohormones improve productivity and quality of medicinal plants under abiotic stress. In: Husen A, Iqbal M (eds) medicinal plants. Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5611-9_13
Tanimoto E (1990) Gibberellin requirement for the normal growth of roots. Gibberellins. Springer, New York, pp 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3002-1_22
Teixeira AF, de Bastos AA, Ferrarese-Filho O et al (2006) Role of calcium on phenolic compounds and enzymes related to lignification in soybean (Glycine max L.) root growth. Plant Growth Regul 49:69–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-006-0013-7
Thimmaiah SK (1999) Standard methods of biochemical analysis. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi-110002
Trovato M, Mattioli R, Costantino P (2008) Multiple roles of proline in plant stress tolerance and development. Rendiconti Lincei 19:325–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-008-0022-8
Tukey JW (1977) Exploratory data analysis. Reading, Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley
Ünlükara A, Cemek B, Karaman S et al (2008) Response of lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. crispa) to salinity of irrigation water. N Z J Crop Hortic Sci 36:265–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/01140670809510243
Upadhyaya H, Panda SK, Dutta BK (2011) CaCl2 improves post-drought recovery potential in Camellia sinensis (L) O. Kuntze Plant Cell Rep 30:495–503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-010-0958-x
Valifard M, Mohsenzadeh S, Kholdebarin B (2014) Effects of salt stress on volatile compounds, total phenolic content and antioxidant activities of (Salvia mirzayanii). S Afr J Bot 93:92–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2014.04.002
Velikova V, Yordanov I, Edreva A (2000) Oxidative stress and some antioxidant systems in acid rain-treated bean plants. Protective role of exogenous polyamines. Plant Sci 151:59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9452(99)00197-1
Xu C, Li X, Zhang L (2013) The effect of calcium chloride on growth, photosynthesis, and antioxidant responses of Zoysia japonica under drought conditions. PLoS ONE 8:e68214. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068214
Yadav B, Kaur V, Narayan OP et al (2022) Integrated omics approaches for flax improvement under abiotic and biotic stress: current status and future prospects. Front Plant Sci 13:931275. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.931275
Yan Y, Pan C, Du Y et al (2018) Exogenous salicylic acid regulates reactive oxygen species metabolism and ascorbate– glutathione cycle in Nitraria tangutorum Bobr. under salinity stress. Physiol Mol Biol Plant 24:577–589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-018-0540-5
Zhong H, Läuchli A (1993) Changes of cell wall composition and polymer size in primary roots of cotton seedlings under high salinity. J Exp Bot 44:773–778. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23694460
Zhu JK (2003) Regulation of ion homeostasis under salt stress. Curr Opin Plant Biol 6:441–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1369-5266(03)00085-2
Funding
The funds received from the University Grant Commission, India, in the form of Junior Research Fellowship and Radha Krishanan Foundation Fund, MDU, Rohtak to conduct this experiment is fully acknowledged.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
NY: investigation, data collection and analysis, writing original draft; SSA, SK, VK: conceptualization, resources, supervision, review, and editing; MS, NK, HM: formal analysis and review. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Gangrong Shi
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Yadav, N., Kumar, A., Sawariya, M. et al. Effect of GA3 and calcium on growth, biochemical, and fatty acid composition of linseed under chloride-dominated salinity. Environ Sci Pollut Res 31, 16958–16971 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32325-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32325-x