Abstract
Biogeochemistry, encompassing nearly all the factors for plant and animal ecological, chemical, and physical relations, has a close and even overlapping relation with the conservation sciences. In this relation, both the natural processes and human-constructed systems have severely affected the status of many plant and animal species, including their physiological and ecological dynamics. However, the information on these relations is largely scattered, focusing on the impacts of particular chemicals on particular species, rather than on combined chemical groups on ecosystems, and the possibilities for conservation science and policy. This chapter examines the role of the understanding of biogeochemistry in the development and effective conservation management and policy and how this may inform biogeochemical research. Current research findings indicate a shift in the relevance from global scale chemical flows to smaller scales at the regional, local, and even micro level scenarios. Case studies are taken of the impacts of lead, zinc, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, chromium, copper, and selenium, pesticides (including insecticides and rodenticides), veterinary compounds (such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs and polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs), and industrial pollutants such as perfluoroalkyl substances on terrestrial, aquatic, and marine life, and the impacts of ameliorative policy actions. Conservation policies have been evolved to remedy these events, but in many cases, more research is required to remedy the impacts of the chemical changes. Significantly, chemical systems are increasingly studied in conjunction with conservation issues, and these actions have contributed to positive results for conservation efforts, and knowledge of conservation issues.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Change history
28 February 2024
A correction has been published.
References
Acharya, K. P., Paudel, P. K., Neupane, P. R., & Köhl, M. (2016). Human-wildlife conflicts in Nepal: patterns of human fatalities and injuries caused by large mammals. PLOS One, 11(9), e0161717. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161717
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2019). Toxicological profile for chromium. Retrieved from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp7.pdf
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2020a). Toxicological profile for copper. Retrieved from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp132.pdf
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). (2020b). Selenium. Retrieved from https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp92-c3.pdf
Albers, P. H. (2006). Birds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Avian and Poultry Biology Reviews, 17, 125–140. https://doi.org/10.3184/147020606783438740
Albers, P. H., Green, D. E., & Sanderson, C. J. (1996). Diagnostic criteria for selenium toxicosis in aquatic birds: Dietary exposure, tissue concentrations, and macroscopic effects. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 32(3), 468–485. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-32.3.468
Altman, R., Bosch, B., Brune, K., Patrignani, P., & Young, C. (2015). Advances in NSAID development: Evolution of diclofenac products using pharmaceutical technology. Drugs, 75(8), 859–877. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-015-0392-z
Anderson, M. D. (1999). Africa’s hooded vulture: A dichotomy of lifestyle. Vulture News, 41, 3–5.
Anderson, M. D. (2000). Raptor conservation in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Ostrich, 71(1–2), 25–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/00306525.2000.9639859
Anderson, W. L., Havera, S. P., & Zercher, B. W. (2000). Ingestion of lead and nontoxic shotgun pellets by ducks in the Mississippi Flyway. Journal of Wildlife Management, 64(3), 848–857. https://doi.org/10.2307/3802755
Arnemo, J., Andersen, O., Stokke, S., Thomas, V. G., Krone, O., Pain, D. J., & Mateo, R. (2016). Health and environmental risks from lead-based ammunition: Science versus socio-politics. EcoHealth, 13, 618–622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-016-1177-x
Arribére, M. A., Ribeiro Guevara, S., Bubach, D. F., Arcagni, M., & Vigliano, P. H. (2008). Selenium and mercury in native and introduced fish species of Patagonian Lakes, Argentina. Biological Trace Element Research, 122, 42–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-007-8059-6
Ashbaugh, H. M., Conway, W. C., Haukos, D. A., Collins, D. P., Comer, C. E., & French, A. D. (2018). Evidence for exposure to selenium by breeding interior snowy plovers (Charadrius nivosus) in saline systems of the Southern Great Plains. Ecotoxicology, 27(6), 703–718. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-018-1952-2
Australian Livestock Export Corporation Limited. (2022). Copper poisoning. Retrieved from http://www.veterinaryhandbook.com.au/Diseases.aspx?diseasenameid=58
Badry, A., Krone, O., Jaspers, V., Mateo, R., García-Fernández, A., Leivits, M., & Shore, R. F. (2020). Towards harmonisation of chemical monitoring using avian apex predators: Identification of key species for pan-European biomonitoring. The Science of the Total Environment, 731, 139198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139198
Bailey, M. (2011). Heavy metal intoxication in companion animals. https://www.dvm360.com/view/heavy-metal-intoxication-companion-animal-proceedings
Bain, B. J. (2017). In B. J. Bain, I. Bates, & M. A. Laffan (Eds.), Blood cell morphology in health and disease (12th ed., pp. 61–92). Dacie and Lewis Practical Haematology. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7020-6696-2.00005-9
Bano, I., Skalickova, S., Arbab, S., Urbankova, L., & Horkyet, P. (2022). Toxicological effects of nanoselenium in animals. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 13, 72. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-022-00722-2
Barghi, M., Jin, X., Lee, S., Jeong, Y., Yu, J. P., Paek, W. K., & Moon, H. B. (2018). Accumulation and exposure assessment of persistent chlorinated and fluorinated contaminants in Korean birds. Science of the Total Environment, 645, 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.040
Barnes, J. G., Doney, G. E., Yates, M. A., Seegar, W. S., & Gerstenberger, S. L. (2019). A broadscale assessment of mercury contamination in peregrine falcons across the northern latitudes of North America. Journal of Raptor Research, 53(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-18-0003
Barnosky, A. D. (2008). Megafauna biomass tradeoff as a driver of Quaternary and future extinctions. PNAS, 105(1), 11543–11548. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801918105
Barry, D., & Oelschlaeger, M. (1996). A science for survival: values and conservation biology. Conservation Biology, 10, 905–911.
Bassi, E., Facoetti, R., Ferloni, M., Pastorino, A., Bianchi, A., Fedrizzi, G., Bertoletti, I., & Andreotti, A. (2021). Lead contamination in tissues of large avian scavengers in south-central Europe. The Science of the Total Environment, 778, 146130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146130
Bastow, B. D., & Holmes, J. L. (2016). Teratology and drug use during pregnancy. Medscape. WebMD. https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/260725-overview
Battaglia, A., Ghidini, S., Campanini, G., & Spaggiari, R. (2005). Heavy metal contamination in little owl (Athene noctua) and common buzzard (Buteo buteo) from northern Italy. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 60(1), 61–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2003.12.019
Baudrot, V., Fritsch, C., Perasso, A., Banerjee, M., & Raoul, F. (2018). Effects of contaminants and trophic cascade regulation on food chain stability: application to cadmium soil pollution on small mammals – Raptor systems. Ecological Modelling, 382, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.05.002
BBC. (2019). Critically endangered vultures poisoned en masse in Botswana. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48717018
Beckon, W. N., & Maurer, T. C. (2007). Species at risk from selenium exposure in the San Francisco estuary. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Bedrosian, B., Craighead, D., & Crandall, R. (2012). Lead exposure in Bald eagles from Big Game Hunting, the continental implications and successful mitigation efforts. PLoS One, 7(12), e51978. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051978
Benson, K. (2022). Zinc toxicosis in animals. Retrieved from https://www.merckvet manual.com/toxicology/zinc-toxicosis/zinc-toxicosis-in-animals
Benson, J. M., Cheng, Y. S., Eidson, A. F., Hahn, F. H., Henderson, R. H., & Pickrell, J. A. (1995). Pulmonary toxicity of nickel subsulfide in F344/N rats exposed for 1–22 days. Toxicology, 103, 9–22.
Berg, W., Johnels, A., Sjöstrand, B., & Westermark, T. (1966). Mercury content in feathers of Swedish birds from the past 100 years. Oikos, 17(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.2307/3564782
Berny, P. (2007). Pesticides and the intoxication of wild animals. Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics, 30(2), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2885.2007.00836.x
Bevanger, K., Berntsen, F., Clausen, S., Dahl, E. L., Flagstad, O., Follestad, A., Halley, D., Hanssen, F., Johnsen, L., Kvaløy, P., Lund-Hoel, P., May, R., Nygård, T., Christian Pedersen, H., Reitan, O., Røskaft, E., Steinheim, Y., Stokke, B., & Vang, R. (2010). Pre- and post-construction studies of conflicts between birds and wind turbines in coastal Norway (Bird-Wind). Report on findings 2007–2010. NINA Report 620. https://docs.wind-watch.org/norway-nina-report-01jan08.pdf
Beyer, W. N., Dalgarn, J., Dudding, S., French, J. B., Mateo, R., Miesner, J., Sileo, L., & Spann, J. (2005). Zinc and lead poisoning in wild birds in the tri-state mining district (Oklahoma, Kansas, and Missouri). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 48(1), 108–117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-004-0010-7
Bianchi, T. S. (2021). The evolution of biogeochemistry: Revisited. Biogeochemistry, 154, 141–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-020-00708-0
Binkowski, Ł. J., Stawarz, R. M., & Zakrzewski, M. (2013). Concentrations of cadmium, copper, and zinc in tissues of mallard and coot from southern Poland. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part B, Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes, 48(5), 410–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2013.742725
Bischoff, K., Priest, H., & Mount-Long, A. (2010). Animals as sentinels for human lead exposure: A case report. Journal of Medical Toxicology: official journal of the American College of Medical Toxicology, 6(2), 185–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-010-0014-9
Blakley, B. R. (2021). Copper poisoning in animals. Merck Manual. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/toxicology/copper-poisoning/copper-poisoning-in-animals#:~:text=The%20sudden%20onset%20of%20clinical,membranes%2C %20hemoglobinuria%2C%20and%20jaundice
Bloom, P. H., Scott, J. M., Pattee, O. H., & Smith, M. R. (1989). In Meyburg & R. D. Chancellor (Eds.), Lead contamination of Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) within the range of the Californian condor (Gymnogyps californianus). Raptors in the Modern World, 481–482. Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls.
Blus, L. J. (1994). A review of lead poisoning in swans. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C, 108(3), 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-8413(94)00021-2
Bowerman, W. W., Evans, E. D., Giesy, J. P., & Postupalsky, S. (1994). Using feathers to assess risk of mercury and selenium to Bald eagle reproduction in the Great Lakes region. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 27(3), 294–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00213162
Bowser, D. H., Frenkel, K., & Zelikoff, J. T. (1994). Effects of in vitro nickel exposure on the macrophagemediated immune functions of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 52, 367–373.
Brean, H. (2019). Peregrine falcons act as mercury bellwether, Nevada study shows. Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved from https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-nevada/peregrine-falcons-act-as-mercury-bellwethernevada-study-shows-1640798/
Bridgeford, P. (2004a). Lappet-faced vulture Torgos tracheliotus. In A. Monadjem, M. D. Anderson, S. E. Piper, & A. F. Boshoff (Eds.), The vultures of Southern Africa – Quo vadis (pp. 28–33). Birds of Prey Working Group.
Bridgeford, P. (2004b). Status of vultures in Namibia. In A. Monadjem, M. D. Anderson, S. E. Piper, & A. F. Boshoff (Eds.), The vultures of Southern Africa – Quo vadis (pp. 144–147). Birds of Prey Working Group.
Brown, C. J. (1991). Declining Martial Polemaetus bellicosus and Tawny Aquila rapax eagle populations and causes of mortality on farmlands in central Namibia. Biological Conservation, 56(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(91)90088-Q
Buehler, D. A. (2020). Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), version 1.0. In A. F. Poole & F. B. Gill (Eds.), Birds of the world. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.baleag.01
Burco, J., Myers, A. M., Schuler, K., & Gillin, C. (2012). Acute lead toxicosis via ingestion of spent ammunition in a free-ranging cougar (Puma concolor). Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 48(1), 216–219. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-48.1.216
Burgat, V. (1990). Un micropollutant: Le cadmium. Bulletin Mensuel de l’Office National de la Chasse, 146, 40–42.
Burger, J. (1995). A risk assessment for lead in birds. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 45(4), 369–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287399509532003
Buxton, S., Garman, E., Heim, K. E., Lyons-Darden, T., Schlekat, C. E., Taylor, M. D., & Oller, A. R. (2019). Concise review of nickel human health toxicology and ecotoxicology. Inorganics, 7(7), 89. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics7070089
Cade, T. J. (2007). Exposure of California Condors to lead from spent ammunition. Journal of Wildlife Management, 71(7), 2125–2133. https://doi.org/10.2193/2007-084
Cain, S. A., Kadlec, J. A., Allen, D. L., Cooley, R. A., Hornocker, M. H., & Wagner, F. H. (1971). Predator control -1971. Report to the President’s Council on Environmental Quality and the U.S. Department of the Interior by the Advisory Committee of Predator Control. University of Michigan Press.
Campbell, M. (2015). Vultures: Their evolution, ecology and conservation. Taylor and Francis (CRC Press).
Campbell, M. (2017). Biological conservation for the 21st century: A conservation biology of large wildlife. Nova Science Publishers.
Campbell, M. (2018). Geomatics and conservation biology. Nova Science Publishers.
Campbell, M. (2020). The physical geography of El Salvador: A geophysical and ecological approach. Nova Science Publishers.
Campbell, M. (2022). The Great Eagles: Their Evolution, Ecology and Conservation. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Campbell, M., & Jha, K. K. (2021). Critical research techniques in animal and habitat ecology: international examples. Nova Science Publishers.
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. (1999). Canadian tissue Residue Guidelines for the Protection of Wildlife Consumers of Aquatic Biota! DDT. Excerpt from: Canadian environmental quality guidelines, Winnipeg. http://www.ccme.ca/publications/ceqg_rcqe.html
Cantrell, A. C., Kilroe-Smith, T. A., Simões, M. M., & Border, E. A. (1977). The effect of zinc and pH on the behaviour of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity in baboons exposed to lead. British Journal of Industrial Medicine, 34(2), 110–113. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.34.2.110
Carneiro, M., Colaço, B., Brandão, R., Ferreira, C., Santos, N., Soeiro, V., Colaço, A., Pires, M. J., Oliveira, P. A., & Lavín, S. (2014). Biomonitoring of heavy metals (Cd, Hg, and Pb) and metalloid (As) with the Portuguese common buzzard (Buteo buteo). Environmental monitoring and assessment, 186(11), 7011–7021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3906-3
Carpenter, J. W., Pattee, O. H., Fritts, S. H., Rattner, B. A., Wiemeyer, S. N., Royle, J. A., & Smith, M. N. M. R. (2003). Experimental lead poisoning in Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura). Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 39(1), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-39.1.96
Carroll, S. E. (1996). Ancient & Medieval Falconry: Origins & functions in medieval England. The Crown & Helm. http://www.r3.org/life/articles/falconry.html
Carruthers, B., & Gunson, K. E. (2015). Development of a provincial wildlife mitigation strategy for large and small animals on highways in Ontario. Presentation and Paper Submitted to the 2015 International Conference on Ecology and Transportation.
Castro, I., Aboal, J. R., Fernandez, J. A., & Carballeira, A. (2011). Use of raptors for biomonitoring of heavy metals: Gender, age, and tissue selection. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 86(3), 347–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-011-0220-4
Chang, L. W., Magos, L., & Suzuki, T. (Eds.). (1996). Toxicology of metals. CRC Press.
Chau, Y. K., & Kulikovsky-Cordeiro, O. T. R. (1995). Occurrence of nickel in the Canadian environment. Environmental Reviews, 3, 95–120.
Chiverton, L., Cromie, R., & Kock, R. (2022). European mammal exposure to lead from ammunition and fishing weight sources. Heliyon, 8(8), e10014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10014
Christensen, K. Y., Raymond, M., & Meiman, J. (2019). Perfluoroalkyl substances and metabolic syndrome. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 222(1), 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.08.014
Church, M. E., Gwiazda, R., Risebrough, R. W., Sorenson, K., Chamberlain, C. P., Farry, S., Heinrich, W., Rideout, B. A., & Smith, D. R. (2006). Ammunition is the principal source of lead accumulated by California condors re-introduced to the wild. Environmental Science and Technology, 40(19), 6143–6150. https://doi.org/10.1021/es060765s
Clark, A., & Scheuhammer, A. (2003). Lead poisoning in upland-foraging birds of prey in Canada. Ecotoxicology, 12, 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022576510445
Clarkson, T. W., & Magos, L. (2006). The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 36(8), 609–662. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408440600845619
Clements, T., Gilbert, M., Rainey, H. J., Cuthbert, R., Eames, J. C., Bunnat, P., Teak, S., Chansocheat, S., & Setha, T. (2012). Vultures in Cambodia: Population, threats and conservation (pp. 1–18). Bird Conservation International.
Colborn, T. (1991). Epidemiology of Great Lakes Bald eagles. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 33(4), 395–454.
Conforti, V. A., & Azevedo, F. C. C. (2003). Local perceptions of jaguars (Panthera onça) and pumas (Puma Concolor) in the Iguaçu National Park área, south Brazil. Biological Conservation, 111, 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00277-X
Cooke, J. (2011). Cadmium in small mammals. In W. N. Beyer & J. P. Meador (Eds.), Environmental contaminants in biota interpreting tissue concentrations (2nd ed., pp. 627–642). Taylor and Francis. https://doi.org/10.1201/b10598
Cope, R.B. (2022). Cyanide poisoning in animals. Retrieved from https://www.merckvet manual.com/toxicology/cyanide-poisoning/cyanide-poisoning-in-animals
Craig, R. C., & Enderson, J. H. (2004). Peregrine falcon biology and management in Colorado, 1973–2001. Technical Publication 43. Colorado Division of Wildlife.
Craig, T. H., Connelly, J. W., Craig, E. H., & Parker, T. L. (1990). Lead concentrations in Golden and Bald eagles. Wilson Bulletin, 102, 130–133.
Craighead, D., Bedrosian, B., Watson, R. T., Fuller, M., Pokras, M., & Hunt, W. (2009). A relationship between blood lead levels of common ravens and the hunting season in the southern Yellowstone ecosystem. Ingestion of lead from spent ammunition: Implications for wildlife and humans. Peregrine Fund.
Crinnion, W. J. (2011). Polychlorinated biphenyls: persistent pollutants with immunological, neurological, and endocrinological consequences. Alternative Medicine Review, 16(1), 5–13.
Cruz-Martinez, L., Redig, P. T., & Deen, J. (2012). Lead from spent ammunition: A source of exposure and poisoning in Bald eagles. Human–Wildlife Interactions, 6(1), 94–104.
Cullen, J. T., & Maldonado, M. T. (2013). Biogeochemistry of cadmium and its release to the environment. In A. Sigel, H. Sigel, & R. Sigel (Eds.), Cadmium: From toxicity to essentiality. Metal ions in life sciences (Vol. 11). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_2
Cuthbert, R., Green, D. R., Ranade, S., SaravAn, S., Pain, D. J., Prakash, V., & Cunningham, A. A. (2006). Rapid population declines of Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) and Red-headed vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) in India. Animal Conservation, 9(3), 349–354. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2006.00041.x
Dangleben, N. L., Skibola, C. F., & Smith, M. T. (2013). Arsenic immunotoxicity: A review. Environmental Health, 12(1), 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-12-73
Das, K. K., Reddy, R. C., Bagoji, I. B., Das, S., Bagali, S., Mullur, L., Khodnapur, J. P., & Biradar, M. S. (2018). Primary concept of nickel toxicity c – An overview. Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology, 30(2), 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1515/jbcpp-2017-0171
Daskin, J. H., & Pringle, R. M. (2016). Does primary productivity modulate the indirect effects of large herbivores? A global meta-analysis. Journal of Animal Ecology, 85(4), 857–868. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12522
De Francisco, N., Troya, J. D. E., & Agüera, E. I. (2003). Lead and lead toxicity in domestic and free-living birds. Avian Pathology, 32(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/0307945021000070660
DeBruyn, A. M. H., & Chapman, P. M. (2007). Selenium toxicity to invertebrates: Will proposed thresholds for toxicity to fish and birds also protect their prey? Environmental Science & Technology, 41(5), 1766–1770. https://doi.org/10.1021/es062253j
DeForest, D. K., Schlekat, C. E., Brix, K. V., & Fairbrother, A. (2012). Secondary poisoning risk assessment of terrestrial birds and mammals exposed to nickel. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 8(1), 107–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.248
Descalzo, E., Camarero, P. R., Sánchez-Barbudo, I. S., Martinez-Haro, M., Ortiz-Santaliestra, M. E., Moreno-Opo, R., & Mateo, R. (2021). Integrating active and passive monitoring to assess sublethal effects and mortality from lead poisoning in birds of prey. The Science of the Total Environment, 750, 142260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142260
Dirzo, R., Young, H. S., Galetti, M., Ceballos, G., Isaac, N. J. B., & Collen, B. (2014). Defaunation in the anthropocene. Science, 345, 401–406.
Diters, R. W., & Nielsen, S. W. (1978). Lead poisoning of raccoons in Connecticut. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 14(2), 187–192. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-14.2.187
Dobrowolska, A., & Melosik, M. (2008). Bullet-derived lead in tissues of the wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). European Journal of Wildlife Research, 54(2), 231–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-007-0134-y
Donázar, J. A., Palacios, C. J., Gangoso, L., Ceballos, O., González, M. J., & Hiraldo, F. (2002). Conservation status and limiting factors in the endangered population of Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) in the Canary Islands. Biological Conservation, 107(1), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00049-6
Eeva, T., Lehikoinen, E., & Ronkarönkä, M. (1998). Air pollution fades the plumage of the Great Tit. Functional Ecology, 12(4), 607–612. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2435.1998.00221.x
Eeva, T., Belskii, E., & Kuranov, B. (2006). Environmental pollution affects genetic diversity in wild bird populations. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 608(1), 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrgentox.2006.04.021
Ehrenfeld, D. W. (1970). Biological conservation. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Ehrenfeld, D. (1992). Conservation biology: its origins and definition. Science (New York, N.Y.), 255(5052), 1625–1626. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.255.5052.1625-a
Eisler, R. (1985). Cadmium hazards to fish, wildlife and invertebrates: A synoptic review (Vol. 85, p. 2). Biological Report, 1.2. United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
Eisler, R. (1988). Arsenic hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: A synoptic review. Biological Report 85 (1.12). Contaminant Hazard Reviews January 1988 Report No. 12. United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center.
Eisler, R. (1998). Nickel hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates. A Synoptic Review. Retrieved from https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/eisler/CHR_34_Nickel.pdf
Ek, K. H., Morrison, G. M., Lindberg, P., & Rauch, S. (2004). Comparative tissue distribution of metals in birds in Sweden using ICP-MS and laser ablation ICP-MS. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 47(2), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-004-3138-6
Ellgaard, E. G., Ashley, S. E., Langford, A. E., & Harlin, D. C. (1995). Kinetic analysis of the swimming behavior of the goldfish, Carassius auratus, exposed to nickel; hypoactivity induced by sublethal concentrations. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 55, 929–936.
Elliott, J. E., Langelier, K. M., Scheuhammer, A. M., Sinclair, P. H., & Whitehead, P. E. (1992). Incidence of lead poisoning in Bald eagles and lead shot in waterfowl gizzards from British Columbia, 1988–91. CWS Prog. Note 200, Canadian Wildlife Service.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2013). Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-03/documents/pahs_factsheet_cdc_2013.pdf
Environmental Protection Agency. (2022). PFAS explained. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-explained
Espín, S., Martínez-López, E., Jiménez, P., María-Mojica, P., & García-Fernández, A. J. (2015). Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δALAD) activity in four free-living bird species exposed to different levels of lead under natural conditions. Environmental Research, 137, 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.12.017
Esposito, M., De Roma, A., Maglio, P., Sansone, D., Picazio, G., Bianco, R., De Martinis, C., Rosato, G., Baldi, L., & Gallo, P. (2019). Heavy metals in organs of stray dogs and cats from the city of Naples and its surroundings (Southern Italy). Environmental science and pollution research international, 26(4), 3473–3478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3838-5
European Chemicals Bureau. (2003). Technical guidance document in support of Commission. Directive 93/67/EEC on risk assessment for new notified substances, Commission Regulation (EC) 1488/94 on risk assessment for existing substances and Directive 98/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the placing of biocidal products on the market. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, European Chemicals Bureau.
Evans, D. H., Weingarten, K. E., & Walton, J. S. (1990). The effect of atropine on cadmium- and nickel-induced constriction of vascular smooth muscle of the dogfish shark ventral aorta. Toxicology, 62, 89–94.
Evers, D. C., Savoy, L. J., DeSorbo, C. R., Yates, D. E., Hanson, W., Taylor, K. M., Siegel, L. S., Cooley, J. H., Jr., Bank, M. S., Major, A., Munney, K., Mower, B. F., Vogel, H. S., Schoch, N., Pokras, M., Goodale, M. W., & Fair, J. (2008). Adverse effects from environmental mercury loads on breeding common loons. Ecotoxicology, 17(2), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-007-0168-7
Evers, D. C., Paruk, J. D., McIntyre, J. W., & Barr, J. F. (2010). Common Loon (Gaviaimmer). In A. F. Poole (Ed.), The Birds of North America. Ithaca.
Falandysz, J., Jakuczun, B., & Mizera, T. (1988). Metals and organochlorines in four female White-tailed eagles. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 19(10), 521–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(88)90542-5
Falandysz, J., Ichihashi, H., Szymczak, K., Yamasaki, S., & Mizera, T. (2001). Metallic elements and metal poisoning among White-tailed Sea eagles from the Baltic Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42, 1190–1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0025-326x(01)00217-x
Ferguson-Lees, J., & Christie, D. A. (2001). Raptors of the world. Christopher Helm Publishers.
Fernie, K. J., Smits, J. E., Bortolotti, G. R., & Bird, D. M. (2001). Reproduction success of American Kestrels exposed to dietary polychlorinated biphenyls. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 20(4), 776–781. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620200412
Fingas, M. (2017). The fate of PAHs resulting from in-situ oil burns. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings, 1, 1041–1056. https://doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-2017.1.1041
Fisher, I. J., Pain, D. J., & Thomas, V. G. (2006). A review of lead poisoning from ammunition sources in terrestrial birds. Biological Conservation, 131(3), 421–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.02.018
Forsman, D. (1999). The raptors of Europe and the Middle East. A handbook of field identification. Poyser.
Franson, J. C. (1996). Interpretation of tissue lead residues in birds other than waterfowl. In W. N. Beyer et al. (Eds.), Environmental contaminants in wildlife: Interpreting tissue concentrations (pp. 265–279). CRC Press, Lewis Publishers.
Franson, J. C., & Pain, D. J. (2011). Lead in birds. In W. N. Beyer & J. P. Meador (Eds.), Environmental contaminants in Biota: Interpreting tissue concentrations (2nd ed., pp. 563–593). CRC Press.
Franson, J. C., Hansen, S. P., Creekmore, T. E., Brand, C. J., Evers, D. C., Duerr, A. E., & DeStefano, S. (2003). Lead fishing weights and other fishing tackle in selected waterbirds. Waterbirds, 26(3), 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1675/1524-4695(2003)026[0345:LFWAOF]2.0.CO;2
Franson, J. C., Lahner, L. L., Meteyer, C. U., & Rattner, B. A. (2012). Copper pellets simulating oral exposure to copper ammunition: Absence of toxicity in American kestrels (Falco sparverius). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 62(1), 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-011-9671-1
Frantz, A., Pottier, M. A., Karimi, B., Corbel, H., Aubry, E., Haussy, C., Gasparini, J., & Castrec-Rouelle, M. (2012). Contrasting levels of heavy metals in the feathers of urban pigeons from close habitats suggest limited movements at a restricted scale. Environmental Pollution, 168, 23–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.04.003
Frenzel, R. W., & Anthony, R. G. (1989). Relationship of diets and environmental contaminants in wintering Bald eagles. Journal of Wildlife Management, 53(3), 792–802. https://doi.org/10.2307/3809214
Frewin, R. (2014). Chapter 27 – Biochemical aspects of anaemia (3rd ed., pp. 515–532). Clinical Biochemistry: Metabolic and Clinical Aspects. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7020-5140-1.00027-4
Gainzaraian, J. A., Arambarri, R., & Rodríguez, A. F. (2000). Breeding density, habitat selection and reproductive rates of the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus in Álava (northern Spain). Bird Study, 47, 225–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063650009461177
Gangoso, L., Alvarez-Lloret, P., Rodríguez-Navarro, A. A., Mateo, R., Hiraldo, F., & Donázar, J. A. (2009). Long-term effects of lead poisoning on bone mineralization in vultures exposed to ammunition sources. Environmental Pollution, 157(2), 569–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2008.09.015
García-Fernández, A. J., Calvo, J. F., Martínez-López, E., María-Mojica, P., & Martínez, J. E. (2008). Raptor ecotoxicology in Spain: A review on persistent environmental contaminants. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 37(6), 432–439. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2008)37432
Ghazaly, K. S. (1992). Sublethal effects of nickel on carbohydrate metabolism, blood, and mineral contents of Tilapia nilotica. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 64, 525–532.
Giesy, J. P., & Kannan, K. (2001). Global distribution of perfluorooctane sulfonate in wildlife. Environmental Science & Technology, 35(7), 1339–1342. https://doi.org/10.1021/es001834k
Gilbert, M., Virani, M. Z., Watson, R. T., Oaks, J. L., Benson, P. C., Khan, A. A., et al. (2002). Breeding and mortality of Oriental White-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis in Punjab Province, Pakistan. Bird Conservation International, 12(4), 311–326. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270902002198
Gilbert, M., Oaks, J. L., Virani, M. Z., Watson, R. T., Ahmed, S., Chaudhry, J., et al. (2004). In R. C. Chancellor & Meyburg (Eds.), The status and decline of vultures in the provinces of Punjab and Sind, Pakistan: A 2003 update (pp. 221–234). Raptors worldwide. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls. WWGBP and MME/Birdlife Hungary.
Gill, C. E., & Langelier, K. M. (1994). British Columbia. Acute lead poisoning in a Bald eagle secondary to bullet ingestion. Canadian Veterinary [Journal] = la Revue Veterinaire Canadienne, 35(5), 303–304.
Gil-Sánchez, J. M., Aguilera-Alcalá, N., Moleón, M., Sebastián-González, E., Margalida, A., Morales-Reyes, Z., Durá-Alemañ, C. J., Oliva-Vidal, P., Pérez-García, J. M., & Sánchez-Zapata, J. A. (2021). biases in the detection of intentionally poisoned animals: Public health and conservation implications from a field experiment. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(3), 1201. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031201
Giri, A., Ranjan, P., & Bharti, V. K. (2021). In P. Devi, P. Singh, A. Malakar, & D. Snow (Eds.), Selenium toxicity in domestic animals. Selenium Contamination in Water. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119693567.ch4
Golden, N. H., Warner, S. E., & Coffey, M. J. (2016). A review and assessment of spent lead ammunition and its exposure and effects to scavenging birds in the United States. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 237, 123–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23573-8_6
Grade, T. J. (2011). Effects of lead fishing tackle on common loons (Gavia immer) in New Hampshire. 1989–2010 [Thesis]. University of Wisconsin.
Grade, T. J., Pokras, M. A., Laflamme, E. M., & Vogel, H. S. (2017). Population-level effects of lead fishing tackle on common loons. Journal of Wildlife Management, 82(1), 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21348
Green, R.A., Selby, L.A. & Zumwalt, R.W. (1978). Experimental lead intoxication in dogs: A comparison of blood lead and urinary delta-aminolevulinic acid following intoxication and chelation therapy. Retrieved from https://worldwidescience.org/topicpages/u/urine+delta-aminolevulinic+acid.html
Green, R. E., Newton, I., Shultz, S., Cunningham, A. A., Gilbert, M., Pain, D. J., & Prakash, V. (2004). Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Applied Ecology, 41(5), 793–800. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00954.x
Grilo, A., Moreira, A., Carrapiço, B., Belas, A., & São Braz, B. (2021). Epidemiological study of pesticide poisoning in domestic animals and wildlife in Portugal: 2014–2020. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 616293. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.616293
Gross, L. (2006). Switching drugs for livestock may help save critically endangered Asian vultures. PLoS Biology, 4(3), e61. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040061
Grúz, A., Déri, J., Szemerédy, G., Szabó, K., Kormos, É., Bartha, A., Lehel, J., & Budai, P. (2018). Monitoring of heavy metal burden in wild birds at eastern/north-eastern part of Hungary. Environmental science and pollution research international, 25(7), 6378–6386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-1004-0
Grúz, A., Mackle, O., Bartha, A., Szabó, R., Déri, J., Budai, P., & Lehel, J. (2019). Biomonitoring of toxic metals in feathers of predatory birds from eastern regions of Hungary. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 26(25), 26324–26331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05723-9
Guitart, R., Sachana, M., Caloni, F., Croubels, S., Vandenbroucke, V., & Berny, P. (2010). Animal poisoning in Europe. Part 3: Wildlife. Veterinary Journal, 183(3), 260–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.03.033
Gulliford, A. (2015). Looking back on a century of poisoning predators. High Country News. Retrieved from https://www.hcn.org/articles/looking-back-on-a-century-of-poisoning-predators
Guthrie, A. L., Jayson, S. L., Strike, T. B., Sparrow, S. J., Flach, E. J., & Szladovits, B. (2020). Diagnosis and treatment of heavy metal toxicosis in six Waldrapp Ibis (Geronticus eremita). Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 34(4), 371–380. https://doi.org/10.1647/1082-6742-34.4.371
Haig, S. M., D’Elia, J., Eagles-Smith, C., Fair, J. M., Gervais, J., Herring, G., … Schulz, J.H. 2014. The persistent problem of lead poisoning in birds from ammunition and fishing tackle. The Condor 116(3): 408–428. doi: https://doi.org/10.1650/CONDOR-14-36.1
Hall, J.O. (2022). Selenium poisoning. Retrieved from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/special-pet-topics/poisoning/selenium-poisoning#:~:text=Chronic%20(longterm)% 20selenium%20poisoning%2C,the%20hair%20and%20the%20hooves
Hall, M., Grantham, J., Posey, R., & Mee, A. (2007). Lead exposure among reintroduced California condors in southern California. California Condors in the 21st Century. Series in Ornithology, 2, 163–184. Cambridge, MA: Nuttall Ornithological Club and American Ornithologists’ Union.
Hancock, P. (2009a). Botswana – Major poisoning incidents (pp. 10–11). African Raptors.
Hancock, P. (2009b). Poisons devastate vultures throughout Africa. African Raptors Newsletter, 2(November).
Hancock, P. (2010). Vulture poisoning at Khutse. Birds and People, 27, 7. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/1854/LU-1039067
Harada, K., & Miura, H. (1984). Free erythrocyte protoporphyrin (FEP) and zinc protoporphyrin (ZnP) as biological parameters for lead poisoning. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 53(4), 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00380676
Harvey, L. J., & McArdle, H. J. (2008). Biomarkers of copper status: A brief update. British Journal of Nutrition, 99(Suppl. 3), S10–S13. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508006806
Haschek, W. M., Rousseaux, C. G., & Wallig, M. A. (2013). Haschek and Rousseaux’s handbook of toxicologic pathology (3rd ed.). Academic Press [Imprint]. Elsevier Science & Technology Books.
Hays, S. (1959). Conservation and the Gospel of efficiency: The progressive conservation, 1890–1929. Harvard University Press.
Heinz, G. H., & Hoffman, D. J. (1998). Methylmercury chloride and selenomethionine interactions on health and reproduction in mallards. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 17(2), 139–145. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620170202
Heinz, G. H., Hoffman, D. J., Klimstra, J. D., Stebbins, K. R., Kondrad, S. L., & Erwin, C. A. (2011). Teratogenic effects of injected methylmercury on avian embryos. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 30(7), 1593–1598. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.530
Helander, B. & Stjernberg T. (2002). Action plan for the conservation of white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) Strasbourg: Birdlife International. Retrieved from http://www.planetofbirds.com/ns/sap/White-tailed%20Eagle.pdf
Helander, B., Ekman, B., Hagerroth, J.-E., Hagerroth, P.-A., & Israelsson, J. (1989). Age-specific field characteristics of the White-tailed Sea eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla. Var Vagelvarld, 48, 319–334.
Helander, B., Olsson, A., Bignert, A., Asplund, L., & Litzén, K. (2002). The role of DDE, PCB, coplanar PCB and eggshell parameters for reproduction in the white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Sweden. Ambio, 31(5), 386–403. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-31.5.386
Helander, B., Bignert, A., & Asplund, L. (2008). Using raptors as environmental sentinels: monitoring the white-tailed sea eagle Haliaeetus albicilla in Sweden. Ambio, 37(6), 425–431. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2008)37[425:uraesm]2.0.co;2
Helander, B., Axelsson, J., Borg, H., Holm, K., & Bignert, A. (2009). Ingestion of lead from ammunition and lead concentrations in White-tailed Sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Sweden. Science of the Total Environment, 407(21), 5555–5563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.07.027
Helander, B., Krone, O., Räikkönen, J., Sundbom, M., Ågren, E., & Bignert, A. (2021). Major lead exposure from hunting ammunition in eagles from Sweden. The Science of the total environment, 795, 148799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148799
Henny, C. J., & Elliott, J. E. (2015). Toxicology. In D. M. Bird & K. L. Bildstein (Eds.), Raptor research and management techniques manual (2nd ed., pp. 329–350). Hancock House Publishing, Ltd..
Hernández, M., & Margalida, A. (2008). Pesticide abuse in Europe: Effects on the Cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) population in Spain. Ecotoxicology, 17(4), 264–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-008-0193-1
Herrmann, C., Krone, O., Stjernberg, T., & Helander, B. (2011). Population development of Baltic bird species: White-tailed Sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla). HELCOM Baltic Sea Environment Fact Sheet. https://helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/BSEFS-White_tailed-Eagle.pdf
Hinck, J. E., Norstrom, R. J., Orazio, C. E., Schmitt, C. J., & Tillitt, D. E. (2009). Persistence of organochlorine chemical residues in fish from the Tombigbee River (Alabama, USA), Continuing risk to wildlife from a former DDT manufacturing facility. Environmental Pollution, 157(2), 582–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2008.08.021
Hivert, L. G., Clarke, J. R., Peck, S. J., Lawrence, C., Brown, W. E., Huxtable, S. J., Schaap, D., Pemberton, D., & Grueber, C. E. (2018). High blood lead concentrations in captive Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii): A threat to the conservation of the species? Australian Veterinary Journal, 96(11), 442–449. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.12753
Hoffman, D. J. (2002). Role of selenium toxicity and oxidative stress in aquatic birds. Aquatic Toxicology, 57(1–2), 11–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-445X(01)00263-6
Holt, G., Frøslie, A., & Norheim, G. (1979). Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica. Mercury. France: DDE, and PCB in the avian fauna in Norway, 70, 1–28. 1965–1976.
Honda, K., Marcovecchio, J. E., Kan, S., Tatsukawa, R., & Ogi, H. (1990). Metal concentrations in pelagic seabirds from the North Pacific Ocean. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 19(5), 704–711. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01183988
Hong, Y. J., Kim, Y. J., Murata, K., Lee, H., & Min, M.-S. (2013). Determining the specific status of Korean Collared Scops Owls. Animal Systematics, Evolution and Diversity, 29(2), 136–143. https://doi.org/10.5635/ASED.2013.29.2.136
Hoogesteijn, R., & Hoogesteijn, A. (2008). Conflicts between cattle ranching and large predators in Venezuela: could use of water buffalo facilitate felid conservation? Oryx, 42(1), 132–138. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605308001105
Houserova, P., Hedbavny, J., Matejicek, D., Kracmar, S., Sitko, J., & Kuban, V. (2005). Determination of total mercury in muscle, intestines, liver and kidney tissues of cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus) and Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo). Veterinarni Medicina, 50, 61–68. https://doi.org/10.17221/5597-VETMED
Huang, J. & Mayer, J. (2019). Lead and zinc toxicity in birds. Retrieved from https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/lead-and-zinc-toxicity-in-birds/
Hudson, R. H., Tucker, R. K., & Haegele, M. A. (1984). Handbook of toxicity of pesticides to wildlife (2nd ed.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication 153.
Hunt, W. G., Parish, C. N., Farry, S. C., Lord, T. G., & Sieg, R. (2007). Movements of introduced California Condors in Arizona in relation to lead exposure. In A. Mee, L. S. Hall, & J. Grantham (Eds.), California Condors in the 21st Century (pp. 79–96). Nuttall Ornithological Club, American Ornithologists’ Union, McLean.
Ingley, E., & Klinken, S. P. (2006). Erythrocytes. In G. J. Laurent & S. D. Shapiro (Eds.), Encyclopedia of respiratory medicine (pp. 142–146). Academic Press.
Iñigo, A., & Atienza, J. C. (2007). Efectos del Reglamento 1774/2002 y las decisions adoptadas por la Comisión Europea en, 2003 y 2005 sobre las aves necrófagas en la peninsula Ibérica y sus posibles soluciones. Official report to the European Commission. SEO/Birdlife 15-06-2007.
Ishii, C., Ikenaka, Y., Nakayama, S. M., Suzuki, Y., Watanuki, Y., Watanabe, Y., Fukuwaka, M. A., Yohannes, Y. B., Kawai, Y. K., & Ishizuka, M. (2013). Heavy metal pollution in Japanese seabirds. The Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research, 61(Suppl), S75–S76.
Isomursu, M., Koivusaari, J., Stjernberg, T., Hirvelä-Koski, V., & Venäläinen, E. R. (2018). Lead poisoning and other human-related factors cause significant mortality in white-tailed eagles. Ambio, 47(8), 858–868. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-018-1052-9
Iwata, H., Watanabe, M., Kim, E., Gotoh, R., Yasunaga, G., Tanabe, S., Masuda, Y., & Fujita, S. (2000). Contamination by chlorinated hydrocarbons and lead in Steller’s Sea eagle and White-tailed Sea eagle from Hokkaido, Japan. In M. Ueta & M. J. Mcgrady (Eds.), First Symposium on Steller’s and White-tailed Sea eagles in East Asia (pp. 91–106). Wild Bird Society of Japan.
Jacobson, E., Carpenter, J. W., & Novilla, M. (1977). Suspected lead toxicosis in a Bald eagle. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 171(9), 952–954.
Jayaraj, R., Megha, P., & Sreedev, P. (2016). Organochlorine pesticides, their toxic effects on living organisms and their fate in the environment. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 9(3–4), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1515/intox-2016-0012
Jenson, S., Johnels, A. G., Olsson, M., & Westermark, T. (1972). The avifauna of Sweden as indicators of environmental contamination with mercury and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Proceedings of the International Ornithological Congress, 15, 455–465.
Jha, K. K., & Campbell, M. (Eds.). (2021). Critical research techniques in animal and habitat ecology examples from India. Nova Science Publishers.
Johnels, A., Tyler, G., & Westermark, T. (1979). A history of mercury levels in Swedish fauna. Ambio, 8(4), 160–168.
Jones, G., & Barker, A. (2008). Reference intervals. The Clinical Biochemist. Reviews 29 Suppl, 1(Suppl 1), S93–S97.
Jorgenson, J. L. (2001). Aldrin and dieldrin: A review of research on their production, environmental deposition and fate, bioaccumulation, toxicology, and epidemiology in the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(Suppl. 1), 113–139. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.01109s1113
Jürgens, M. D., Crosse, J., Hamilton, P. B., Johnson, A. C., & Jones, K. C. (2016). The long shadow of our chemical past – High DDT concentrations in fish near a former agrochemicals factory in England. Chemosphere, 162, 333–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.078
Kaiser, T. E., Reichel, W. L., Locke, L. N., Cromartie, E., Krynitsky, A. J., Lamont, T. G., Mulhern, B. M., Prouty, R. M., Stafford, C. J., & Swineford, D. M. (1980). Organochlorine pesticide, PCB, and PBB residues and necropsy data for Bald eagles from 29 states – 1975–77. Pesticides Monitoring Journal, 4, 145–149.
Kalisińska, E., Lisowski, P., Czernomysy-Furowicz, D., & Kavetska, K. (2008). Serratospiculiasis, mycosis, and haemosiderosis in wild peregrine falcon from Poland. A case report. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Pulawy, 52, 75–79.
Kalisińska, E., Lisowski, P., Salicki, W., Kucharska, T., & Kavetska, K. (2009). Mercury in wild terrestrial carnivorous mammals from north-western Poland and unusual fish diet of red fox. Acta Theriologica, 54, 345–356. https://doi.org/10.4098/j.at.0001-7051.032.2008
Kalisińska, E., Gorecki, J., Lanocha, N., Okonska, A., Melgarejo, J. B., Budis, H., Rzad, I., & Golas, J. (2014). Total and methylmercury in soft tissues of White-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and osprey (Pandion haliaetus) collected in Poland. Ambio – A Journal of the Human Environment, 43(7), 858–870. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0533-8
Kallok, M.A. (2013). The case for copper: Research uncovers problems with lead bullets for deer hunting. Minnesota Conservation Volunteer. Retrieved from https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/mcvmagazine/issues/2013/sep-oct/copper.html
Kasper, C. (2003). CHAPTER 7 – Erythropoietin. In A. W. Thomson & M. T. Lotze (Eds.), The Cytokine Handbook (Fourth Edition) I (pp. 149–166). Academic Press.
Kasprzak, K. S. (1987). Nickel. Advances in modern environmental toxicology, 11, 145–183.
Kaur, S., Kamli, M. R., & Ali, A. (2011). Role of arsenic and its resistance in nature. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 57(10), 769–774. https://doi.org/10.1139/w11-062
Kelly, T. R., & Johnson, C. K. (2011). Lead exposure in free-flying Turkey vultures is associated with big game hunting in California. PLoS One, 6(4), e15350. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015350
Kelly, T. R., Poppenga, R. H., Woods, L. A., Hernandez, Y. Z., Boyce, W. M., Samaniego, F. J., Torres, S. G., & Johnson, C. K. (2014). Causes of mortality and unintentional poisoning in predatory and scavenging birds in California. Veterinary Record Open, 1(1), e000028. https://doi.org/10.1136/vropen-2014-000028
Kenntner, N., Tataruch, F., & Krone, O. (2001). Heavy metals in soft tissue of White-tailed eagles found dead or moribund in Germany and Austria from 1993 to 2000. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 20(8), 1831–1837. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620200829
Kenntner, N., Krone, O., Altenkamp, R., & Tataruch, F. (2003). Environmental contaminants in liver and kidney of free-ranging northern Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) from three regions of Germany. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 45, 128–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-002-2100-8
Kenntner, N., Crettenand, Y., Fünfstück, H., Janovsky, M., & Tataruch, F. (2004). Lead poisoning and heavy metal exposure of Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) from the European Alps. Journal of Ornithology, 148(2), 173–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-006-0115-zdoi
Kenntner, N., Tataruch, F., & Krone, O. (2005). Risk assessment of environmental contaminants in White-tailed Sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) from Germany. In K. Pohlmeyer (Ed.), Extended Abstracts of the XXVIIth Congress of the International Union of Game Biologists, Hanover (pp. 125–127). DSV Verlag.
Khangarot, B. S., & Ray, P. K. (1990). Acute toxicity and toxic interaction of chromium and nickel to common guppy Poecilia reticulata (Peters). Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 44, 832–839.
Kim, J., & Oh, J. M. (2012). Biological monitoring of heavy metal contaminations using owls. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 14(3), 1091–1097. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2em10929h
Kim, E.-Y., Goto, R., Iwata, H., Masuda, Y., Tanabe, H., & Fujita, S. (1999). Preliminary survey of lead poisoning of Stellar’s sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus) and White-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Hokkaido, Japan. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 18(3), 448–451. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620180312
Kitowski, I., Sujak, A., Wiącek, D., Strobel, W., Komosa, A., & Stobiński, M. (2016). Heavy metals in livers of raptors from Eastern Poland – The importance of diet composition. Belgian Journal of Zoology, 146(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.26496/bjz.2016.34
Kitowski, I., Jakubas, D., Wiącek, D., & Sujak, A. (2017). Concentrations of lead and other elements in the liver of the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), a European flagship species, wintering in Eastern Poland. Ambio, 46(8), 825–841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-017-0929-3
Kleiven, J., Bjerke, T., & Kaltenborn, B. P. (2004). Factors influencing the social acceptability of large carnivore behaviours. Biodiversity and Conservation, 13, 1647–1658. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BIOC.0000029328.81255.38
Kolko, G. (1963). The triumph of conservatism: A re-interpretation of American history, 1900–1916. Free Press.
Korbel, R., & Kösters, J. (1994). Die Aktivitätsbestimmung der Delta-Aminolävulinsäure-Dehydratase – ein Verfahren zur Diagnose von Bleiintoxikationen bei Vögeln [Determination of the activity of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase – a method for the diagnosis of lead poisoning in birds]. Tierarztliche Praxis, 22(4), 342–349.
Kramar, D. E., Carstensen, B., Prisley, S., & Campbell, J. (2019). Mercury concentrations in blood and feathers of nestling Bald eagles in coastal and inland Virginia. Avian Research, 10(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40657-019-0142-0
Kramer, J., & Redig, P. T. (1997). Sixteen years of lead poisoning in eagles, 1980–1995: An epizootiologic view. Journal of Raptor Research, 31(4), 327–332.
Krone, O., Wille, F., Kenntner, N., Boertmann, D., & Tataruch, F. (2004). Mortality factors, environmental contaminants, and parasites of White-tailed Sea eagles from Greenland. Avian Diseases, 48(2), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.1637/7095
Krone, O., Stjernberg, T., Kenntner, N., Tataruch, F., Koivusaari, J., & Nuuja, I. (2006). Mortality factors, helminth burden, and contaminant residues in white-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) from Finland. Ambio, 35(9), 8–104. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2006)35[98:MFHBAC]2.0.CO;2
Krone, O., Kenntner, N., & Tataruch, F. (2009). Gefährdungsursachen des Seeadlers. Denisia, 27, 139–146. https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/DENISIA_0027_0139-0146.pdf
Krüger, S. C. & Amar, A. (2018). Lead Exposure in the Critically Endangered Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) Population in Southern Africa. Journal of Raptor Research, 52(4), 491–499. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-17-86.1
Kuhn, L. T. (2001). In J. W. Martin (Ed.), Bone mineralization (2nd ed., pp. 47–54). Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology. https://epdf.pub/queue/concise-encyclopedia-of-the-structure-of-materials.html
Kunito, T., Kubota, R., Fujihara, J., Agusa, T., & Tanabe, S. (2008). Arsenic in marine mammals, seabirds, and sea turtles. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 195, 31–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77030-7_2
Kurosawa, N. (2000). Lead poisoning in Steller’s Sea eagles and White-tailed Sea eagles. In M. Ueta & M. J. McGrady (Eds.), First Symposium on Stellar’s and White-tailed Sea eagles in East Asia (pp. 107–109). Wild Bird Society of Japan.
Langelier, K. M., Andress, C. E., Grey, T. K., Wooldridge, C., Lewis, R. J., & Marchetti, R. (1991). Lead poisoning in Bald eagles in British Columbia. Canadian Veterinary Journal = la Revue Veterinaire Canadienne, 32(2), 108–109.
Lapointe, D., & Couture, P. (2006). Importance of the route of exposure in accumulation and subcellular partitioning of nickel in fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Presentation P484 at the 27th Annual Meeting of the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. November.
Lazorchak, J. M., McCormick, F. H., Henry, T. R., & Herlihy, A. T. (2003). Contamination of fish in streams of the mid-Atlantic region: An approach to regional indicator selection and wildlife assessment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 22, 545–553. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620220312
Lemly, A. D. (1993). Guidelines for evaluating selenium data from aquatic monitoring and assessment studies. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 28(1), 83–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00547213
Lemly, A. D. (1996). Assessing the toxic threat of selenium to fish and aquatic birds. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 43(1), 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00399568
Lemly, A. D. (2002). Symptoms and implications of selenium toxicity in fish: the Belews Lake case example. Aquatic toxicology (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 57(1-2), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-445x(01)00264-8
Lenntech. (2022). Heavy metals. Retrieved from https://www.lenntech.com/processes/heavy/heavy-metals/heavy-metals.htm#ixzz7ihZw0RUH.
Leonard, T. C. (2009). American economic reform in the progressive era: Its foundational beliefs and their relation to eugenics. History of Political Economy, 41(1), 109–141. https://doi.org/10.1215/00182702-2008-040
Leopold, A. S., Cain, S. A., Cottam, C. M., Gabrielson, I. N., & Kimball, T. L. (1964). Predator and rodent control in the United States. Wildlife Management Institute.
Lepage, D. (2020). Avibase – Bird checklists of the world: Canary Islands. Retrieved from https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=esic&list=howard moore
Liebezeit, J. & Sheaffer, D. (2014). Blood lead levels in avian scavengers: A comparison of urban and rural regions in the Pacific Northwest. Retrieved from https://audubonportland.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/ASoP_Lead_preliminary_report_web_4.28.14.pdf
López, S. L., Aiassa, D., Benítez-Leite, S., Lajmanovich, R., Mañas, F., Poletta, G., Sánchez, N., Simoniello, M. F., & Carrasco, A. E. (2012). Chapter Two. Pesticides used in South American GMO-based agriculture: A review of their effects on humans and animal models. Advances in Molecular Toxicology, 6, 41–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59389-4.00002-1
Louekari, K., Mäkelä-Kurtto, R., Pasanen, J., Virtanen, V., Sippola, J., & Malm, J. (2000). Cadmium in Fertilizers: Risks to human health and the environment. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Finland.
Love, J. A. (1983). The return of the sea eagle. Cambridge University Press.
Lumeij, J. T. (1985). Clinicopathologic aspects of lead poisoning in birds: A review. The Veterinary Quarterly, 7(2), 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.1985.9693969
Luzardo, O. P., Ruiz-Suárez, N., Henríquez-Hernández, L. A., Valerón, P. F., Camacho, M., Zumbado, M., & Boada, L. D. (2014). Assessment of the exposure to organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, and PAHs in six species of predatory birds of the Canary Islands, Spain. Science of the Total Environment, 15(472), 146–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.021
MacArthur, R. H., & Wilson, E. O. (1967). The theory of island biogeography. Princeton University Press.
Mackenzie, D. (2014). Europe’s eagles under threat from vulture-killing drug. Retrieved from https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25650-europes-eagles-under-threat-from-vulture-killing-drug/
Madhusudan, M. D. (2003). Living amidst large wildlife: livestock and crop depredation by large mammals in the interior villages of Bhadra tiger reserve, South India. Environmental Management, 31, 466–475. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-002-2790-8
Madry, M. M., Kraemer, T., Kupper, J., Naegeli, H., Jenny, H., Jenni, L., & Jenny, D. (2015). Excessive lead burden among Golden eagles in the Swiss Alps. Environmental Research Letters. PubMed, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/3/034003
Manning, T., Ross, G. A., & Symons, R. (2008). Environmental contaminants in White-bellied Sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) found in Sydney, Australia. Australian Journal Ecotoxicology, 14, 21–30.
Manning, L. K., Wünschmann, A., Armién, A. G., Willette, M., MacAulay, K., Bender, J. B., Buchweitz, J. P., & Redig, P. (2019). Lead Intoxication in Free-Ranging Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Veterinary Pathology, 56(2), 289–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300985818813099
Manto, M. (2014). Abnormal copper homeostasis: Mechanisms and roles in neurodegeneration. Toxics, 2(2), 327–345. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics2020327
Marettová, E., Maretta, M., & Legáth, J. (2015). Toxic effects of cadmium on testis of birds and mammals: A review. Animal Reproduction Science, 155, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2015.01.007
Martin, P. A., Campbell, D., Hughes, K., & McDaniel, T. (2008). Lead in the tissues of terrestrial raptors in southern Ontario, Canada, 1995–2001. Science of the Total Environment, 391(1), 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.11.012
Martínez-López, E., Martínez, J. E., María-Mojica, P., Peñalver, J., Pulido, M., Calvo, J. F., & García-Fernández, A. J. (2004). Lead in feathers and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity in three raptor species from an unpolluted Mediterranean forest (Southeastern Spain). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 47(2), 270–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-004-3027-z
Mateo-Tomás, P., Olea, P., Jiménez-Moreno, M., Camarero, P. R., Sánchez-Barbudo, I. S., Martín-Doimeadios, R. C. R., & Mateo, R. (2016). Mapping the spatio-temporal risk of lead exposure in apex species for more effective mitigation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.0662
MedicinePlus. (2009). ALAD gene aminolevulinate dehydratase. Retrieved from https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/alad/
Meine, C. (2004). Correction lines: Essays on land, leopold, and conservation. Island Press.
Meine, C. (2010). Conservation Biology: Past and Present. In N. S. Sodhi & P. S. Ehrlich (Eds.), Conservation biology for all (pp. 7–26). Oxford University Press.
Meine, C., Soule, M., & Noss, R. F. (2006). A mission-driven discipline: The growth of conservation biology. Conservation Biology, 20(3), 631–651. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00449.x
Merriam Webster. (2020a). Medical dictionary. Hemotoxic. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/hemotoxic
Merriam Webster. (2020b). Medical dictionary. Carcinogenic. Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/carcinogenic
Meyburg, B.-U., Kirwan, G. M., & Garcia, E. F. J. (2020). Greater Spotted eagle (Clanga clanga), version 1.0. In D. Hoyo et al. (Eds.), Birds of the world. Ithaca, NY. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.grseag1.01
Middleton, H. A., Butler, R. W., & Davidson, P. (2018). Waterbirds alter their distribution and behavior in the presence of Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), Northwestern Naturalist, 99(1), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1898/NWN16-21.1
Mihajlović M. (1992). Toksicnost selena kod domaćih zivotinja [Selenium toxicity in domestic animals]. Glas. Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti. Odeljenje Medicinskih Nauka, 42, 131–144.
Mijele, D. (2009). Incidences of poisoning of vultures and lions in the Masai Maramara National Reserve. Kenya Wildlife Service, Masai Mara Veterinary Report.
Miller, M. J. R., Wayland, M. E., Dzus, E. H., & Bortolotti, G. R. (2000). Availability and ingestion of lead shotshell pellets by migrant Bald eagles in Saskatchewan. Journal of Raptor Research, 34, 167–174. Retrieved from https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v034n03/p00167-p00174.pdf
Miller, M. J. R., Wayland, M. E., & Bortolotti, G. R. (2001). Exposure of migrant Bald eagles to lead in prairie Canada. Environmental Pollution, 112(2), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(00)00122-6
Misztal-Szkudlińska, M., Szefer, P., Konieczka, P., & Namieśnik, J. (2011). Bio-magnification of mercury in trophic relation of Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) and fish in the Vistula Lagoon, Poland. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 176(1–4), 439–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1595-0
Moore, D. R., Teed, R. S., Rodney, S. I., Thompson, R. P., & Fischer, D. L. (2010). Refined avian risk assessment for aldicarb in the United States. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 6(1), 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1897/IEAM_2009-022.1
Morgan, R. V. (1994). Lead poisoning in small companion animals: An update (1987–1992). Veterinary and human toxicology, 36(1), 18–22.
Mudd, G. M. (2010). Global trends and environmental issues in nickel mining: Sulfides versus laterites. Ore Geology Reviews, 38(1–2), 9–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2010.05.003
Mundy, P. J. (1997). Hooded vulture Necrosyrtes monachus. In J. A. Harrison et al. (Eds.), The atlas of southern African birds, 1: Non-passerines (pp. 156–157). Birdlife South Africa.
Mundy, P., Butchart, D., Ledger, J., & Piper, S. (1992). The vultures of Africa. Academic Press.
Museum Victoria. (2012). What does megafauna mean? https://museumvictoria.com.au/about/mv-blog/apr-2012/what-does-megafauna-mean/
Nadjafzadeh, M., Hofer, H., & Krone, O. (2013). The link between feeding ecology and lead poisoning in white-tailed eagles. Journal of Wildlife Management, 77, 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.440
Nam, D. H., & Lee, D. P. (2006). Reproductive effects of heavy metal accumulation on breeding feral pigeons (Columba livia). Science of the Total Environment, 366(2–3), 682–687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.02.004
National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2022a). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 969491, Dieldrin. Retrieved from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Dieldrin
National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2022b). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 36231, 3,3',4,4',5,5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl. Retrieved from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/36231
National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2022c). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 5460536, sodium dicyanidoaurate(I). Retrieved from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/sodium-dicyanidoaurate_I
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. (2020). Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS). Retrieved from https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc/index.cfm
National Pesticide Information Center. (1996). Carbofuran. Retrieved from http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/carbofur.htm
National Research Council. (1977). (US) Committee on Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental Pollutants. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK231025/
Newton, I. (1986). The Sparrow Hawk. T and A D Poyser Ltd..
Newton, I. (1993). Causes of breeding failure in wild raptors: A review. In P. Y. Redig (Ed.), Raptor, biomedicine (pp. 62–70). University of Minnesota Press.
Nickel Institute. (2018). Environmental Fact Sheet 6: Secondary poisoning risk assessment of birds and mammals exposed to nickel in their diets. Retrieved from https://nickelinstitute.org/en/science/environmental-science-fact-sheets/fact-sheet-6-secondary-poisoning-of-birds-mammals/
Nighat, S., Iqbal, S., Nadeem, M. S., Mahood, T., & Shah, S. I. (2013). Estimation of heavy metal residues from the feathers of Falconidae, Accipitridae, and Strigidae in Punjab, Pakistan. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 37, 488–500. https://doi.org/10.3906/zoo-1112-1
Nobel Foundation. (1948). Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane and Newer Insecticides. Retrieved from https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1948/muller/lecture/
North, M. A., Lane, E. P., Marnewick, K., Caldwell, P., Carlisle, G., & Hoffman, L. C. (2015). Suspected lead poisoning in two captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus jubatus) in South Africa, in 2008 and 2013. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association, 86(1), E1–E5. https://doi.org/10.4102/jsava.v86i1.1286
NPIC. (1999). DDT drug discovery. Retrieved from http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/ddtgen.pdf
NPIC. (2011). Ecotoxicology. Retrieved from http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/ecotox.html
Nriagu, J. O., Pfeiffer, W. C., Malm, O., Magalhaes De Souza, C. M., & Mierle, G. (1992). Mercury pollution in Brazil. Nature, 356(6368), 389. https://doi.org/10.1038/356389a0
O’Toole, D., & Raisbeck, M. F. (1997). Experimentally induced selenosis of adult mallard ducks: Clinical signs, lesions, and toxicology. Veterinary Pathology, 34(4), 330–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/030098589703400409
Oaks, L., Rideout, B. A., Gilbert, M., Watson, R., Virani, M., & Ahmed Khan, A. (2001). Summary of diagnostic investigation into vulture mortality: Punjab Province, Pakistan, 2000–2001. Reports from the workshop on Indian Gyps vultures. In T. Katzner & J. Parry-Jones (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th Eurasian Congress on Raptors (pp. 12–13). Estación Biológica Donaña, Raptor Research Foundation.
Odenbaugh, J. (2003). Values, advocacy, and conservation biology. Environmental Values, 12(1), 55–69. https://doi.org/10.3197/096327103129341225
Odino, M., & Ogada, D. L. (2008). Furadan use in Kenya and its impacts on birds and other wildlife: A survey of the regulatory agency, distributors, and end-users of this highly toxic pesticide. Report to the Bird Committee of Nature.
Ogada, D. L. (2014). The power of poison: pesticide poisoning of Africa’s wildlife. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1322, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12405
Ogada, D. L., & Buij, R. (2011). Large declines of the Hooded vulture Necrosyrtes monachus across its African range. Ostrich, 82(2), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.2989/00306525.2011.603464
Ogada, D. L., & Kibuthu, P. M. (2012). Breeding ecology of Mackinder’s eagle owls Bubo capensis mackinderi in farmlands of central Kenya. Journal of Raptor Research, 46(4), 327–335. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-11-90.1
Ogada, D.L., Thomsett, S., Virani, M.Z., Kendall, C. & Odino, M. 2010. Raptor road counts in Kenya: With emphasis on vultures. Report to the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.
Ohlendorf, H. M. (1989). Bioaccumulation and effects of selenium in wildlife. In L. W. Jacobs (Ed.), Selenium in Agriculture and the Environment (pp. 133–177). Soil Science Society of America.
Olendorff, R. R. (1976). The food habits of North American Golden eagles. American Midland Naturalist, 95(1), 231–236. https://doi.org/10.2307/2424254
Osofsky, A., Jowett, P. L. H., Hosgood, G., & Tully, T. N. (2001). Determination of Normal Blood Concentrations of Lead, Zinc, Copper, and Iron in Hispaniolan Amazon Parrots (Amazona ventralis). Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 15(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1647/1082-6742(2001)015[0031:DONBCO]2.0.CO;2
Outridge, P. M., & Scheuhammer, A. M. (1993). Bioaccumulation and toxicology of chromium: implications for wildlife. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 130, 31–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9763-2_2
Owen, B. (2019). Switch ammo to stop lead poisoning in birds, B.C. wildlife experts tell hunters. Canadian Press. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/switch-ammo-lead-poisoning-1.5361718
Pacyna, E. G., Pacyna, J. M., Sundseth, K., Munthe, J., Kindbom, K., Wilson, S., & Maxson, P. (2010). Global emission of mercury to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources in 2005 and projections to 2020. Atmospheric Environment, 44(20), 2487–2499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.06.009
Pain, D. J., Sears, J., & Newton, I. (1995). Lead concentrations in birds of prey in Britain. Environmental Pollution, 87(2), 173–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(94)P2604-8
Pain, D. J., Prakash, V., Cunningham, A. A., & Ghalsasi, G. R. (2002). Vulture declines in India: patterns, causes, and spread. In T. Katzner & J. Parry-Jones (Eds.), Conservation of Gyps vulture in Asia (pp. 4–7). Third North American Ornithological Congress, September 24–28, 2002.
Pain, D. J., Cunningham, A. A., Donald, P. F., Duckworth, J. W., Houston, D. C., Katzner, T., Parry-Jones, J., Poole, C., Prakash, V., Round, P., & Timmins, R. (2003). Causes and effects of temporospatial declines of Gyps vultures in Asia. Conservation Biology, 17, 661–671.
Pain, D. J., Fisher, I. J., & Thomas, V. G. (2009). A global update of lead poisoning in terrestrial birds from ammunition sources. In R. T. Watson, M. Fuller, M. Pokras, & W. G. Hunt (Eds.), Ingestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans (pp. 28–301). The Peregrine Fund. https://doi.org/10.4080/ilsa.2009.0108
Pain, D. J., Mateo, R., & Green, R. E. (2019). Effects of lead from ammunition on birds and other wildlife: A review and update. Ambio, 48(9), 935–953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-019-01159-0
Pappalardo, L., Silvanose, C. D., Beaufrère, H., Binoy, A., & Azmanis, P. (2021). Reference intervals for Cu, Mg, and Zn in captive gyrfalcons and other falcon species in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation: Official Publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc., 33(4), 797–800. https://doi.org/10.1177/10406387211015655
Parslow, J. L. F., Jefferies, D. J., & Hanson, H. M. (1973). Gannet mortality incidents in 1972. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 4(3), 41–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0025-326X(73)90303-2
Paruk, J. D., Long, D., Perkins, C., East, A., Sigel, B. J., & Evers, D. C. (2014). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons detected in common loons (Gaviaimmer) wintering off coastal Louisiana. Waterbirds, 37, 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1675/063.037.sp111
Pattee, O. H., Wiemeyer, S. N., Mulhern, B. M., Sileo, L., & Carpenter, J. W. (1981). Experimental lead-shot poisoning in Bald eagles. Journal of Wildlife Management, 45(3), 806–810. https://doi.org/10.2307/3808728
Pattee, O. H., Bloom, P. H., Scott, J. M., & Smith, M. R. (1990). Lead hazards within the range of the California Condor. Condor, 92(4), 931–937. https://doi.org/10.2307/1368729
Pederson, L. & Stokka, G. (2020). Cyanide poisoning. North Dakota State University. Retrieved from https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/livestock/cyanide-poisoning#:~:text=Cyanide%20inhibits%20oxygen%20utilization%20by,in%20the %20animal's%20digestive%20tract
Pérez-García, J. M., Marco-Tresserras, J., & Orihuela-Torres, A. (2020). Winter diet and lead poisoning risk of Greater Spotted eagles Clanga clanga in southeast Spain. Bird Study, 67(2), 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063657.2020.1810206
Pérez-López, M., De Mendoza, M. H., López-Beceiro, A., & Rodriguez, F. S. (2008). Heavy metal (Cd, Pb, Zn) and metalloid (As) content in raptor species from Galicia (NW Spain). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 70(1), 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2007.04.016
Pokras, M. A., & Chafel, R. (1992). Lead toxicosis from ingested fishing sinkers in adult Common loons (Gaviaimmer) in New England. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 23, 92–97. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20460274
Pokras, M., Kneeland, M., Ludi, A., Golden, E., Major, A., Miconi, R., & Poppenga, R. H. (2009). Lead objects ingested by Common loons in New England. Northeastern Naturalist, 16(2), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1656/045.016.0202
Posadasa, P., Crisci, J. V., & Katinas, L. (2006). Historical biogeography: A review of its basic concepts and critical issues. Journal of Arid Environments, 66, 389–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.004
Prakash, V. (1999). Status of vultures in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan with special reference to population crash in Gyps species. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 96, 365–378.
Prakash, V., & Rahmani, A. R. (1999). Notes about the decline of Indian vultures, with particular reference to Keoladeo National Park. Vulture News, 41, 6–13.
Prakash, V., Green, R., Pain, D., Ranade, S., Saravanan, S., Prakash, N., Venkitachalam, R., Cuthbert, R., Rahmani, A., & Cunningham, A. (2007). Recent changes in populations of resident Gyps vultures in India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 104, 129–135.
Prakasha, V., Pain, D. J., Cunningham, A. A., Donald, P. F., Prakash, N., Verma, A., Gargia, R., Sivakumar, S., & Rahmania, A. R. (2003). Catastrophic collapse of Indian White-backed Gyps bengalensis and Long-billed Gyps indicus vulture populations. Biological Conservation, 109(3), 381–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00164-7
Prestt, I., Jefferies, D. J., & Moore, N. W. (1970). Polychlorinated biphenyls in wild birds in Britain and their avian toxicity. Environmental Pollution, 1(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-9327(70)90003-0
Proulx, R., Massicotte, P., & Pepino, M. (2014). Googling trends in conservation biology. Conservation Biology, 28, 44–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12131
Puschner, B. & Poppenga, R. (2009). Lead and zinc intoxication in companion birds. Compendium. Retrieved from https://www.vetfolio.com/learn/article/lead-and-zinc-intoxication-in-companion-birds.
Puschner, B., St Leger, J., & Galey, F. D. (1999). Normal and toxic zinc concentrations in serum/plasma and liver of Psittacines with respect to genus differences. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation: official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc, 11(6), 522–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063879901100606
Rahman, Z., & Singh, V. P. (2019). The relative impact of toxic heavy metals (THMs) (arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr)(VI), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb)) on the total environment: An overview. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191(7), 419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7528-7
Rai, D., Wilson, A. M., & Moosavi, L. (2022). Histology, reticulocytes. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542172/
Rainbow, P. S. (1997). Trace metal accumulation in marine invertebrates: Marine biology or marine chemistry? Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 77(1), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315400033877
Rajamani, J., & Subramanian, M. (2015). Toxicity assessment on the levels of select metals in the critically endangered Indian White-backed Vulture, Gyps bengalensis, in India. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 94(6), 722–726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-015-1548-y
Rankins, D. L., & Pugh, D. G. (2012). Feeding and Nutrition. In D. G. Pugh & A. N. Baird (Eds.), Sheep and goat medicine (2nd ed., pp. 18–49). Amsterdam. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-60474-8
Rashidi, H. H., & Green, R. (2018). Red blood cell morphology and indices with clinical chemistry. In N. Rifai (Ed.), Tietz textbook of clinical chemistry and molecular diagnostics, Sixth Edition (Vol. 72, pp. 1731–1733.e12). Elsevier, Inc.
Rattner, B. A. (2009). History of wildlife toxicology. Ecotoxicology (London, England), 18(7), 773–783. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-009-0354-x
Rattner, B. A., Whitehead, M. A., Gasper, G., Meteyer, C. U., Link, W. A., Taggart, M. A., Meharg, A. A., Pattee, O. H., & Pain, D. J. (2008). Apparent tolerance of Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 27(11), 2341–2345. https://doi.org/10.1897/08-123.1
Rattner, B. A., Horak, K. E., Lazarus, R. S., Schultz, S. L., Knowles, S., Abbo, B. G., & Volker, S. F. (2015). Toxicity reference values for chlorophacinone and their application for assessing anticoagulant rodenticide risk to raptors. Ecotoxicology, 24(4), 720–734. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-015-1418-8
Redig, P. T., & Arent, L. R. (2008). Raptor toxicology. Veterinary clinics of North America. Exotic Animal Practice, 11(2), 261–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2007.12.004
Reichel, W. L., Schmeling, S. K., Cromartie, E., Kaiser, T. E., Krynitsky, A. J., Lamont, T. G., & Swineford, D. M. (1984). Pesticide, PCB and lead residues and necropsy data for Bald eagles from 32 states – 1978–1981. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 4(4), 395–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00394177
Revkin, A.C. (1997). High PCB level is found in a hudson bald eagle. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/17/nyregion/highpcb-level-is-found-in-a-hudson-bald-eagle.html
Reyes-Velarde, A. (2018). Young mountain lion found lounging in Pleasanton is released to the wild. Los Angeles Times. (latimes.com)
Riley, R. S., Ben-Ezra, J. M., Goel, R., & Tidwell, A. (2001). Reticulocytes and reticulocyte enumeration. Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis, 15(5), 267–294. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcla.1039
Roche, C. (2006). Breeding records and nest site preference of Hooded vultures in the Greater Kruger National Park. Ostrich, 77(1–2), 99–101. https://doi.org/10.2989/00306520609485515
Rodriguez-Ramos Fernandez, J., Gutiérrez, V., Höfle, U., Mateo, R., Monsalve, L., Crespo, E., & Blanco, J. (2008). Lead in griffon and cinereous vultures in central Spain: correlations between clinical signs and blood lead levels. Proceedings: Ingestion of Spent Lead Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans.
Roebuck, P., & Phifer, P. (1999). The persistence of positivism in conservation biology. Conservation Biology, 13(2), 444–446.
Rogers, J. M., & Kavlock, R. J. (1996). Developmental toxicology. In C. D. Klaassen (Ed.), Casarett & Doull’s toxicology (5th ed., pp. 301–331). McGraw-Hill.
Rubo, A., Kellens, R., Reddy, J., Steier, N., & Hasenpusch, W. (2006). Alkali metal cyanides. Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH.
Rutkiewicz, J., Nam, D. H., Cooley, T., Neumann, K., Padilla, I. B., Route, W., Strom, S., & Basu, N. (2011). Mercury exposure and neurochemical impacts in Bald eagles across several Great Lakes states. Ecotoxicology, 20(7), 1669–1676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-011-0730-1
Sáenz, J. C., & Carrillo, E. (2002). Jaguares depredadores de ganado en Costa Rica: ¿un 982 problema sin solución? In R. Medellin, C. Equihua, C. Chetkiewicz, P. Crawshaw, A. Rabinowitz, K. F. Redford, J. Robinson, E. Sanderson, & A. Taber (Eds.), El Jaguar en El Nuevo Milenio (pp. 127–138). Fondo de cultura económica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Wildlife Conservation Society.
Salkowski, A. A., & Penney, D. G. (1994). Cyanide poisoning in animals and humans: A review. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 36(5), 455–466.
Sánchez-Virosta, P., Espín, S., García-Fernández, A. J., & Eeva, T. (2015). A review on exposure and effects of arsenic in passerine birds. The Science of the Total Environment, 512-513, 506–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.069
Sánchez-Virosta, P., Espín, S., Ruiz, S., Panda, B., Ilmonen, P., Schultz, S. L., Karouna-Renier, N., García-Fernández, A. J., & Eeva, T. (2020). Arsenic-related oxidative stress in experimentally dosed wild Great tit nestlings. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex: 1987), 259, 113813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113813
Saurola, P., Valkama, J., & Velmala, W. (2013). The Finnish bird ringing Atlas. Finnish Museum of Natural History and Ministry of Environment.
Scheuhammer, A. M. (1987). The chronic toxicity of aluminium, cadmium, mercury, and lead in birds: A review. Environmental Pollution, 46(4), 263–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(87)90173-4
Scheuhammer, A. M., & Norris, S. L. (1995). A review of the environmental impacts of lead shotshell ammunition and lead fishing weights in Canada. Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper 88.
Scheuhammer, A. M., Money, S. L., & Kirk, D. (2002). Lead fishing sinkers and jigs in Canada: Review of their use patterns and toxic impacts on wildlife. Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper 108.
Schmutz, J. K., Rose, K. A., & Johnson, R. G. (1989). Hazards to raptors from strychnine poisoned ground squirrels. Journal of Raptor Research, 23(4), 147–151. Retrieved from https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v023n04/p00147-p00151.pdf
Scinicariello, F., Murray, H. E., Moffett, D. B., Abadin, H. G., Sexton, M. J., & Fowler, B. A. (2007). Lead and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase polymorphism: where does it lead? A meta-analysis. Environmental health perspectives, 115(1), 35–41. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9448
Sergio, F., & Hiraldo, F. (2008). Intraguild predation in raptor assemblages: A review. Ibis, 150, 132–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2008.00786.x
Sergio, F., Marchesi, L., & Pedrini, P. (2004). Integrating individual habitat choices and regional distribution of a biodiversity indicator and top predator. Journal of Biogeography, 31(4), 619–628. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.01002.x
Seshadri, B., Bolan, N. S., Naidu, R., & Brodie, K. J. (2010). The role of coal combustion products in managing the bioavailability of nutrients and heavy metals in soils. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 10(3), 378–398. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718
Shankar, S., Shanker, U., & Shikha. (2014). Arsenic contamination of groundwater: a review of sources, prevalence, health risks, and strategies for mitigation. The Scientific World Journal, 304524. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/304524
Sharma, A. K., Saini, M., Singh, S. D., Prakash, V., Das, A., Dasan, R. B., Pandey, S., Bohara, D., Galligan, T. H., Green, R. E., Knopp, D., & Cuthbert, R. J. (2014). Diclofenac is toxic to the Steppe eagle Aquila nipalensis: Widening the diversity of raptors threatened by NSAID misuse in South Asia. Bird Conservation International, 24, 282–286. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270913000609
Shore, R. F., Pereira, M. G., Walker, L. A., & Thompson, D. R. (2011). Mercury in nonmarine birds and mammals. In W. N. Beyer & J. P. Meador (Eds.), Environmental contaminants in biota (pp. 609–642). CRC Press.
Sibly, R. M., Newton, I., & Walker, C. H. (2000). Effects of dieldrin on population growth rates of sparrowhawks 1963–1986. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37(3), 540–546. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2664.2000.00516.x
Sidor, I. F., Pokras, M. A., Major, A. R., Poppenga, R. H., Taylor, K. M., & Miconi, R. M. (2003). Mortality of common loons in New England, 1987 to 2000. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 39(2), 306–315. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-39.2.306
Snoeijs, T., Dauwe, T., Pinxten, R., Vandesande, F., & Eens, M. (2004). Heavy metal exposure affects the humoral immune response in a free-living small songbird, the great tit (Parus major). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 46(3), 399–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-003-2195-6
Snyder, N. F. R., & Snyder, H. A. (1991). Birds of prey: Natural history of North American Raptors. Voyageur Press.
Snyder, N., & Snyder, H. (2000). The California Condor: A saga of natural history and conservation. Academic Press.
Sodhi, N. S., & Ehrlich, P. S. (2010). Conservation biology for all. Oxford University Press.
Sorenson, K., Burnett, J., Mee, A., & Hall, L. (2007). Lead concentrations in the blood of Big Sur California Condors. California Condors in the 21st Century. Series in Ornithology, No. 2 (pp. 185–195). Nuttall Ornithological Club and American Ornithologists’ Union.
Soulé. (1986a). What is conservation biology? BioScience, 35(11), 727–734. https://doi.org/10.2307/1310054
Soulé, M. E. (1986b). Conservation biology: The science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer Associates.
Soulé, M. E., & Orians, G. H. (Eds.). (2001). Conservation biology: Research priorities for the next decade. Island Press.
Soulé, M. E., & Wilcox, B. A. (Eds.). (1980). Conservation biology, an evolutionary ecological perspective. Sinauer Associates.
Spallholz, J. E., & Hoffman, D. J. (2002). Selenium toxicity: Cause and effects in aquatic birds. Aquatic Toxicology, 57(1–2), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-445x(01)00268-5
Speer, R., & Wise, J. P. (2018). Current status on chromium research and its implications for health and risk assessment. In: Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and Chemical Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409547-2.14283-0
Ssemmanda, R., & Pomeroy, D. (2010). Scavenging birds of Kampala: 1973–2009. Scopus, 30, 26–31.
Stangl, G. I., & Kirchgessner, M. (1996). Nickel deficiency alters liver lipid metabolism in rats. Journal of Nutrition, 126, 2466–2473.
Stangl, G. I., & Kirchgessner, M. (1997). Effect of nickel deficiency on fatty acid composition of total lipids and individual phospholipids in brain and erythrocytes of rats. Nutrition Research, 17, 137–147.
Stankovic, S., Kalaba, P., & Stankovic, A. R. (2014). Biota as toxic metal indicators. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 12(1), 63–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-013-0430-6
State of Queensland. (2022a). Lead contamination in food-producing animals. Retrieved from https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/land-management/health-pests-weeds-diseases/livestock/lead-contamination
State of Queensland. (2022b). Causes and signs of lead poisoning and contamination in production animals. Retrieved from https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/land-management/health-pests-weeds-diseases/livestock/lead-contamination/causes-signs
Stern, B. R. (2010). Essentiality and toxicity in copper health risk assessment: Overview, update and regulatory considerations. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A, 73(2), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287390903337100
Stone, W. B., & Okoniewski, J. C. (2001). Necropsy findings and environmental contaminants in common loons from New York. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 37, 178–184. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-37.1.178
Stone, C. L., Fox, M. R. S., Jones, A. L., & Mahaffey, K. R. (1977). δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase – A sensitive indicator of lead exposure in Japanese Quail. Poultry Science, 56(1), 174–181. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0560174
Strom, S. M., Langenberg, J. A., Businga, N. K., & Batten, J. K. (2009). Lead exposure in Wisconsin birds. In R. T. Watson, M. Fuller, M. Pokras, & W. G. Hunt (Eds.), Ingestion of lead from spent ammunition: Implications for wildlife and humans (pp. 1–8). The Peregrine Fund.
Swan, G., Naidoo, V., Cuthbert, R., Green, R. E., Pain, D. J., Swarup, D., Prakash, V., Taggart, M., Bekker, L., Das, D., Diekmann, J., Diekmann, M., Killian, E., Meharg, A., Chandra Patra, R., Saini, M., & Wolter, K. (2006). Removing the threat of diclofenac to critically endangered Asian vultures. PLoS Biology, 4(3), 395–402. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040066
Szumiło, E., Szubska, M., Meissner, W., Bełdowska, M., & Falkowska, L. (2013). Mercury in immature and adults Herring gulls (Larus argentatus) wintering on the Gulf of Gdańsk area. Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies, 42(3), 260–267. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13545-013-0082-y
Szumiło-Pilarska, E., Grajewska, A., Falkowska, L., Hajdrych, J., Meissner, W., Frączek, T., Bełdowska, M., & Bzoma, S. (2016). Species differences in total mercury concentration in gulls from the Gulf of Gdansk (Southern Baltic). Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology: Organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements, 33, 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2015.09.005
Szumiło-Pilarska, E., Falkowska, L., Grajewska, A., & Meissner, W. (2017). Mercury in feathers and blood of gulls from the Southern Baltic Coast, Poland. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 228(4), 138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-017-3308-6
Tasneem, F., Abbasi, N. A., Iqbal Chaudhry, M. J., Mashiatullah, A., Ahmad, S. R., Qadir, A., & Malik, R. N. (2020). Dietary proxies (δ15N, δ13C) as signature of metals and arsenic exposure in birds from aquatic and terrestrial food chains. Environmental Research, 183, 109191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109191
Tchounwou, P. B., Yedjou, C. G., Patlolla, A. K., & Sutton, D. J. (2012). Heavy metals toxicity and the environment. In A. Luch (Ed.), Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. Experientia supplementum (Vol. 101, pp. 133–164). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6
Thiollay, J. M. (2001). Long-term changes of raptor populations in northern Cameroon. Journal of Raptor Research, 35, 173–186.
Tiainen, J., Mikkola-Roos, M., Below, A., Jukarainen, A., Lehikoinen, A., Lehtiniemi, T., Pessa, J., Rajasärkkä, A., Rintala, J., Sirkiä, P., & Valkama, J. (2016). Suomen lintujen uhanalaisuus 2015 – the 2015 red list of Finnish bird species. Ympäristöministeriö & Suomen ympäristökeskus.
Tjernberg, M. (1981). Diet of the Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos during the breeding season in Sweden. Holarctic Ecology. Nordic Society Oikos, 4(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.1981.tb00975.x
Torchia, C. (2018). A new concern for African vultures: Bullet lead in carrion. Retrieved from https://apnews.com/article/e3d078ac03b3491c98012ec2b0743b46
Treves, A., & Bruskotter, J. (2014). Tolerance for predatory wildlife. Science, 344, 476. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1252690
Ueta, M., & Masterov, V. B. (2000). Estimation by a computer simulation of population trend of Steller’s Sea Eagles. In M. Ueta & M. J. McGrady (Eds.), First symposium on Steller’s and White-tailed Sea Eagles in East Asia (pp. 111–116). Wild Bird Society of Japan.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (1980). Ambient water quality criteria for nickel. EPA Report 440/5-80-060.
Van Wyk, E., Bouwman, H., van der Bank, H., Verdoorn, G. H., & Hofmann, D. (2001a). Persistent organochlorine pesticides detected in blood and tissue samples of vultures from different localities in South Africa. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 129(3), 243–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1532-0456(01)90201-7
Van Wyk, E., Van der Bank, F. H. &, Verdoorn, G. H. & Hofmann, D. (2001b). Selected mineral and heavy metal concentrations in blood and tissues of vultures in different regions of South Africa. South African Journal of Animal Science, 31(2), 57–64. doi: https://doi.org/10.4314/sajas.v31i2.3831.
Vandenbroucke, V., Van Pelt, H., De Backer, P., & Croubels, S. (2010). Animal poisonings in Belgium: A review of the past decade. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift, 79, 259–268.
Verdoorn, G. H., van Zijl, N., Snow, T. V., Komen, L., & Marais, E. W. (2004). Vulture poisoning in southern Africa. In A. Monadjem, M. D. Anderson, S. E. Piper, & A. F. Boshoff (Eds.), The Vultures of Southern Africa – Quo Vadis? (pp. 195–201). Birds of Prey Working Group.
Virani, M., Gilbert, M., Watson, R., Oaks, L., Benson, P., Kham, A. A., & Baral, H.-S. (2001). Asian vulture crisis project: Field results from Pakistan and Nepal for the 2000–2001 field season. Reports from the workshop on Indian Gyps vultures. In T. Katzner & J. Parry-Jones (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th Eurasian Congress on Raptors (pp. 461–469). Estación Biológica Donaña, Raptor Research Foundation.
Virani, M. M. Z., Kendall, C., Njoroge, P., & Thomsett, S. (2011). Major declines in the abundance of vultures and other scavenging raptors in and around the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya. Biological Conservation, 144(2), 746–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2010.10.024
Waage, M. (2014). Stop predator poisons from killing wildlife and harming ecosystems: There’s no place for these deadly poisons on American lands. In Natural Resources Defense Council. Retrieved from https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/predator-poisons-FS.pdf
Walker, K. C., Goette, M. B., & Batchelor, G. S. (1954). Pesticide residues in foods, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene content in prepared foods. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2(20), 1034–1037. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf60040a006
Walker, C. H., Brealey, C. J., Mackness, M. M. I., & Johnston, G. (1991). Toxicity of pesticides to birds: The enzymic factor. Biochemical Society Transactions, 19(3), 741–745. https://doi.org/10.1042/bst0190741
Wani, A. L., Ara, A., & Usmani, J. A. (2015). Lead toxicity: A review. Interdisciplinary toxicology, 8(2), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1515/intox-2015-0009
Waseem, A., Arshad, J., Iqbal, F., Sajjad, A., Mehmood, Z., & Murtaza, G. (2014). Pollution status of Pakistan: a retrospective review on heavy metal contamination of water, soil, and vegetables. BioMed Research International, 813206. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/813206
Watson, R. T. (1986). The ecology, biology, and population dynamics of the Bateleur eagle Terathopius ecaudatus. PhD Thesis. University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. A&C Black.
Wayland, M., & Bollinger, T. (1999). Lead exposure and poisoning in Bald eagles and Golden eagles in the Canadian prairie provinces. Environmental Pollution, 104(3), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(98)00201-2
Wayland, M., & Scheuhammer, A. M. (2011). Cadmium in birds. In W. N. Beyer & J. P. Meador (Eds.), Environmental contaminants in biota interpreting tissue concentrations (2nd ed., pp. 645–666). Taylor and Francis.
Wayland, M., Wilson, L. K., Elliott, J. R., Miller, J. E., Bollinger, T., McAdie, M., Langelier, K., Keating, J., & Froese, J. M. W. (2003). Mortality, morbidity, and lead poisoning of eagles in western Canada 1986–1998. Journal of Raptor Research, 37, 8–18. Retrieved from https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v037n01/p00008-p00018.pdf
Wedeen, R. P. (1985). Use of the CaNa2EDTA Pb-mobilization test to detect occult lead nephropathy. Uremia Investigation, 9(2), 127–130. https://doi.org/10.3109/08860228509088200
Weir, S. M., Thomas, J. F., & Blauch, D. N. (2018). Investigating spatial patterns of mercury and rodenticide residues in raptors collected near the Charlotte, NC, USA, metropolitan area. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 33, 33153–33161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3229-y
Wetmur, J. G. (2015). Lead toxicity and the ala-dehydratase polymorphism. https://www.novatitanaquatics.com/grant/NIH/R01-ES005046-06
White, C. M., Cade, T. J., & Enderson, J. H. (2013). Peregrine Falcons of the World. Lynx Edicions.
Whitney, M. C., & Cristol, D. A. (2017). Impacts of sublethal mercury exposure on birds: A detailed review. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 244, 113–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2017_4
Wiemeyer, S. N., Hill, E. F., Carpenter, J. W., & Krynitsky, A. J. (1986). Acute oral toxicity of sodium cyanide in birds. Journal of wildlife diseases, 22(4), 538–546. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-22.4.538
Williams, P. L., James, R. C., & Roberts, S. M. (2014). Principles of toxicology: Environmental and industrial applications. John Wiley & Sons.
Wilson, E. O., & Peter, F. M. (Eds.). (1988). Biodiversity. National Academy Press.
Wobeser, G., & Blakley, B. R. (1987). Strychnine poisoning of aquatic birds. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 23(2), 341–343. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-23.2.341
Woodford, M. H., Bowden, C. G. R., & Shah, N. (2008). Diclofenac in Asia and Africa –Repeating the same mistake? Harmonisation and improvement of registration and quality control of veterinary medicinal products in Africa. OIE World Organisation for Animal Health.
Xie, Y., Holmgren, S., Andrews, D. M. K. & Wolfe, M. S. (2017). Evaluating the impact of the U.S. National Toxicology Program: A case study on Hexavalent Chromium. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125(2), 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp21
Yang, F., Xie, S., Liu, J., Wei, C., Zhang, H., Chen, T., & Zhang, J. (2018). Arsenic concentrations and speciation in wild birds from an abandoned realgar mine in China. Chemosphere, 193, 777–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.098
Young, H. S., Dirzo, R., Helgen, K. M., McCauley, D. J., Billeter, S. A., Kosoy, M. Y., Osikowicz, L. M., Salkeld, D. J., Young, T. P., & Dittmar, K. (2014). Declines in large wildlife increase landscape-level prevalence of rodent-borne disease in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(19), 7036–7041. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1404958111
Young, H. S., McCauley, D. J., Dirzo, R., Goheen, J. R., Agwanda, B., Brook, C., Otárola-Castillo, E., Ferguson, A. W., Kinyua, S. N., McDonough, M. M., Palmer, T. M., Pringle, R. M., Young, T. P., & Helgen, K. M. (2015). Context-dependent effects of large-wildlife declines on small-mammal communities in central Kenya. Ecological Applications, 25, 348–360. https://doi.org/10.1890/14-0995.1
Zaccaroni, A., Amorena, M., Naso, B., Castellani, G., Lucisano, A., & Stracciari, G. L. (2003). Cadmium, chromium and lead contamination of Athene noctua, the Little owl, of Bologna and Parma, Italy. Chemosphere, 52(7), 1251–1258. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0045-6535(03)00363-1
Zaccaroni, A., Andreani, G., Ferrante, M. C., Carpene, E., Isani, G., & Lusiano, A. (2008). Metal concentrations in the liver and kidney of raptor species from the Calabria region, Italy. Acta Veterinaria (Beograd), 58(4), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.2298/AVB0804315Z
Zhang, X. L., Luo, X. J., Liu, J., Luo, Y., Chen, S. J., & Mai, B. X. (2011). Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorinated pesticides in birds from a contaminated region in South China: Association with trophic level, tissue distribution and risk assessment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 18(4), 556–565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-010-0397-9
Zhong, G., Wan, F., Lan, J., Jiang, X., Wu, S., Pan, J., Tang, Z., & Hu, L. (2021). Arsenic exposure induces intestinal barrier damage and consequent activation of gut-liver axis leading to inflammation and pyroptosis of liver in ducks. The Science of the Total Environment, 788, 147780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147780
Zimmerman, D. A., Turner, D. A., & Pearson, D. J. (1996). Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Christopher Helm Publishers.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Campbell, M.O. (2023). Biogeochemistry and Conservation Biology. In: Biogeochemistry and the Environment. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47017-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-47017-2_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-47016-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-47017-2
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)