Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Dyslexia in a second language?—a dynamic test of reading acquisition may provide a fair answer

  • Published:
Annals of Dyslexia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Dyslexia is hard to diagnose in a second language. Poor performance on a test of reading may be caused by poor language proficiency in the second language or by limited schooling rather than by poor reading ability per se. This confound was supported in a study of 88 adult second language learners and 65 native language speakers. The incidence of dyslexia in the second language learners varied widely depending on the measure of reading. In order to reduce language and schooling confounds, a dynamic test of acquisition of basic decoding ability was developed. In the dynamic test, participants are taught three novel letters and to synthesise the letter sounds into new words. Results from the study indicated that the dynamic test provided results in accordance with the current IDA definition of dyslexia, while significantly reducing the influence second language vocabulary and amount of schooling. With the dynamic measure, the same cut-off point between dyslexic and non-dyslexic performance appeared valid in both native language speakers and second language learners.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bridges, M. S., & Catts, H. W. (2011). The use of a dynamic screening of phonological awareness to predict risk for reading disabilities in kindergarten children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44(4), 330–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campione, J., & Brown, A. (1987). Linking dynamic assessment with school achievement. In C. S. Lidz (Ed.), Dynamic assessment: An interactional approach to evaluating learning potential (pp. 82–115). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catts, H. W., Adlof, S. M., & Weismer, S. E. (2006). Language deficits in poor comprehenders: A case for the simple view of reading. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49(2), 278–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cline, T., & Shamsi, T. (2000). Language needs or special needs? The assessment of learning difficulties in literacy among children learning English as an additional language: A literature review. London: DfEE Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Droop, M., & Verhoeven, L. (2003). Language proficiency and reading ability in first- and second-language learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(1), 78–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durgunoğlu, A. Y. (2002). Cross-linguistic transfer in literacy development and implications for language learners. Annals of Dyslexia, 52, 189–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elbro, C. (2010). Dyslexia as disability or handicap: When does vocabulary matter? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(5), 469–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Everatt, J., Ocampo, D., Veii, K., Nenopoulou, S., Smythe, I., al Mannai, H., & Elbeheri, G. (2010). Dyslexia in biscriptal readers. In N. Brunswick, S. McDougall, & P. Davies (Eds.), Reading and dyslexia in different orthographies (pp. 221–245). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everatt, J., Smythe, I., Ocampo, D., & Gyarmathy, E. (2004). Issues in the assessment of literacy-related difficulties across language backgrounds: A cross-linguistic comparison. Journal of Research in Reading, 27(2), 141–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., Fuchs, L. S., Bouton, B., & Caffrey, E. (2011). The construct and predictive validity of a dynamic assessment of young children learning to read: Implications for RTI frameworks. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44(4), 339–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geva, E., & Wade-Woolley, L. (2004). Issues in the assessment of reading disability in second language children. In I. Smythe, J. Everatt, & R. Salter (Eds.), International book of dyslexia: A cross-language comparison and practice guide (pp. 195–206). Chichester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geva, E., Yaghub-Zadeh, Z., & Schuster, B. (2000). Understanding individual differences in word recognition skills of ESL children. Annals of Dyslexia, 50, 123–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goff, D. A., Pratt, C., & Ong, B. (2005). The relations between children’s reading comprehension, working memory, language skills, and components of reading decoding in a normal sample. Reading and Writing, 18, 583–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gough, P. B., Hoover, W. A., & Peterson, C. L. (1996). Some observations on a simple view of reading. In C. Cornoldi & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Reading comprehension difficulties. Processes and intervention (pp. 1–13). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L. (2008). Dynamic assessment and response to intervention: Two sides of one coin. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(2), 111–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L., & Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Dynamic testing. Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 75–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, G. L., & Krol, L. (2007). Relationship between L1 and L2 word-level reading and phonological processing in adults learning English as a second language. Journal of Research in Reading, 30(4), 379–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2, 127–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, J. M., Betjemann, R. S., & Olson, R. K. (2008). Reading comprehension tests vary in the skills they assess: Differential dependence on decoding and oral comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(3), 281–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lervåg, A., & Aukrust, V. G. (2010). Vocabulary knowledge is a critical determinant of the difference in reading comprehension growth between first and second language learners. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(5), 612–620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Limbos, M., & Geva, E. (2001). Accuracy of teacher assessments of ESL children at risk of reading disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 136–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindgrén, S.-A., & Laine, M. (2007). The adaptation of an adult group screening test for dyslexia into Finland-Swedish: Normative data for university students and the effects of language background on test performance. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48(5), 419–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsey, K. A., Manis, F. R., & Bailey, C. E. (2003). Prediction of first-grade reading in Spanish-speaking English-language learners. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3), 482–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lipka, O., & Siegel, L. S. (2007). The development of reading skills in children with English as a second language. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(2), 105–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meng, X.-L., Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1992). Comparing correlated correlation coefficients. Psychological Bulletin, 111(1), 172–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nation, K., Clarke, P., Marshall, C. M., & Durand, M. (2004). Hidden language impairments in children: Parallels between poor reading comprehension and specific language impairment? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47(1), 199–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nation, K., & Cocksey, J. (2009). The relationship between knowing a word and reading it aloud in children's word reading development. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103(3), 296–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ricketts, J., Nation, K., & Bishop, D. V. M. (2007). Vocabulary is important for some, but not all reading skills. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(3), 235–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samson, J. F., & Lesaux, J. F. (2009). Language-minority learners in special education: Rates and predictors of identification for services. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42, 148–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, P. H. K., Aro, M., Erskine, J. M., Wimmer, H., Elbro, C., Lyytinen, H., et al. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94(2), 143–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., Humbach, N., & Javorsky, J. (2006). Native language predictors of foreign language proficiency and foreign language aptitude. Annals of Dyslexia, 56(1), 129–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., Humbach, N., & Javorsky, J. (2008). Early first-language reading and spelling skills predict later second-language reading and spelling skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 162–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spector, J. E. (1992). Predicting progress in beginning reading: Dynamic assessment of phonemic awareness. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 353–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sunderland, H. (2000). Diagnosing multilingual adults. In L. Peer & G. Reid (Eds.), Multilingualism, literacy and dyslexia (pp. 153–162). London: David Fulton Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Danish Ministry of Education (contract #082.863.021) and 21 language, dyslexia and adult education centres from all over the country. The authors are also indebted to 12 students who contributed to the data collection.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Reading Research, University of Copenhagen, 120 Njalsgade, DK-2300, Copenhagen S, Denmark

    Carsten Elbro, Hanne Trebbien Daugaard & Anna S. Gellert

Authors
  1. Carsten Elbro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hanne Trebbien Daugaard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anna S. Gellert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carsten Elbro.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Elbro, C., Daugaard, H.T. & Gellert, A.S. Dyslexia in a second language?—a dynamic test of reading acquisition may provide a fair answer. Ann. of Dyslexia 62, 172–185 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-012-0071-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-012-0071-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation