Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Learning disabilities and visual-motor skills; comparing assessment from a hapto-virtual reality tool and Bender-Gestalt test

  • SI: Cyberinterventions
  • Published:
Virtual Reality Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Previous investigations conducted on post-secondary adult students with learning disabilities (LD) suggest that deficits in visual-motor skills contribute to difficulties in written expression which impact academic achievement. Intervention strategies for individuals with LD include assistive computer-based technologies (ATs) to compensate for or maximize performance. However, research fails to assess the impact of ATs on performance, learning, and motivation of students with LD. Also, one of the limitations of ATs is that they cannot be used for assessment and training and there are very few methods to assess or train visual-motor skills in this population. The present study explores the usefulness of a hapto-visual virtual reality motor skills assessment (MSA) device for visual-motor functioning in adults with and without LD. This is a preliminary step of developing an intervention to improve impaired visual-motor skills in adults with LD. A sample of 22 male and female university students with and without LD had their visual-motor skills pretested using a standard paper-and-pencil Bender-Gestalt (BG) test and were compared according to their performance on the MSA tool. We hypothesized that our LD participants’ performance would be significantly lower than our control participants on the VR task in terms of number of errors and speed. Results showed that participants without LD performed better and more rapidly on the VR task than participants with LD. There were no correlations between the BG and MSA performance. We did not find significant differences between the groups on the Bender-Gestalt scores, previous experience with video game, arousal, and mood. Our results suggest that a novel 3D virtual reality tool such as the MSA can potentially discriminate motor function of people with and without LD; however, the difference between both may also be due to a lack of problem-solving ability in LD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The analyses conducted for this study were done in accordance with Canadian Laws to ensure participant anonymity (Personal information Protection and Electronic Documents Act 2004).

References

  • Adamovich SB, Fluet GG, Tunik E, Merians AS (2009) Sensorimotor training in virtual reality: a review. NeuroRehabilitation 25:1–21

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV-TR), 4th edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Anastasi A, Urbina S (1997) Psychological testing, 7th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahr C, Nelson N, Van Meter A (1996) The effects of text-based and graphics-based software tools on planning and organizing of stories. J Learn Disabil 29:355–370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bara F, Gentaz E (2011) Haptics in teaching handwriting: the role of perceptual and visuo-motor skills. Hum Mov Sci 30:745–759

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bara F, Gentaz E, Colé P (2007) Haptics in learning to read with children from low socio-economic status families. Br J Dev Psychol 25:643–663

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bazinet P, Chebbi B, Tremblay L, Emptage E, Bouchard S (2011) A hapto-visual virtual reality tool for visual-motor skills testing of people with learning disabilities. J Cyber Ther Rehabil 4:264–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck RC (2004) Motivation: theories and principles, 5th edn. Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

  • Beery K, Beery N (2006) The Beery–Buktenica developmental test of visual motor integration administration, scoring, and teaching manual, 5th edn. Pearson, Bloomington

    Google Scholar 

  • Bender L (1970) Use of the visual motor gestalt test in the diagnosis of learning disabilities. J Spec Educ 4:29–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brannigan GG, Decker SL (2003) Bender visual-motor gestalt test-second edition: examiner’s manual. Riverside, Itasca

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks BM, Rose FD, Attree EA, Elliot-Square A (2002) An evaluation of the efficacy of training people with learning disabilities in a virtual environment. Disabil Rehabil 24:622–626

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown SA (2008) Student perceptions of the efficacy of learning disability support services. Hum Soc Sci 69:177

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown T, Unsworth C, Lyons C (2009) An evaluation of the construct validity of the developmental test of visual-motor integration using the Rasch measurement model. Aust Occup Ther J 56:393–402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter JL, Russell HL (1985) Use of EMG biofeedback procedures with learning disabled children in a clinical and an educational setting. J Learn Disabil 18:213–216

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chebbi B, Heijdens C, Boisvert S, Riches I, Saracino R, Sweeney T, Vollebek E (2009) Virtual reality hapto-visual systems for remote training and motor rehabilitation. In: Pennacchio S (ed) Recent advances in control systems, robotics and automation 1:3

  • Cromby J, Standen PJ, Newman J, Tasker H (1996) Successful transfer to the real world of skills practised in a virtual environment by students with severe learning difficulties. The second European conference on disability, virtual reality and associated technologies and University of Reading, 103–107

  • Dawson D, Reid K (1997) Fatigue, alcohol and performance impairment. Nature 17:235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Day SL, Edwards BJ (1996) Assistive technology for postsecondary students with learning disabilities. J Learn Disabil 29(486–492):503

    Google Scholar 

  • Demojà CA, Reitano M, Caracciolo E (1985) General arousal and performance. Percept Mot Skills 61:747–753

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Draffan EA, Evans DG, Blenkhorn P (2007) Use of assistive technology by students with dyslexia in postsecondary education. Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol 2:105–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dumas JE, Nilsen WJ (2003) Abnormal child and adolescent psychology. Pearson, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Duran L, Fisher A (1996) Male and female performance on the assessment of motor and process skills. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 77:1019–1024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durand M (2005) Is there a fine motor skill deficit in nonverbal learning disabilities? Educ Child Psychol 22:90–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Estil LB, Whiting HTA, Sigmundsson H, Ingvaldsen RP (2003) Why might language and motor impairments occur together? Infant Child Dev 12:253–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frewer IJ, Lader M (1991) The effect of caffeine on two computerized tests of attention and vigilance. Hum Psychopharmacol 6:119–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Getchell N, McMenamin S, Whitall J (2005) Dual motor task coordination in children with and without learning disabilities. Adapt Phys Activ Q 22:21–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Goncharenko I, Svinin M, Kanou Y, Hosoe S (2006) Motor training in the manipulation of flexible objects in haptic environments. Cyberpsychol Behav 9:171–174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grant AC, Zangaladze A, Thiagarajah MC, Sathian K (1999) Tactile perception in developmental dyslexia: a psychophysical study using gratings. Neuropsychologia 37:1201–1211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green CS, Bavelier D (2003) Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature 423:534–537

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill EL (1998) A dyspraxic deficit in specific language impairment and development coordination disorder? Evidence form hand and arm movements. Dev Med Child Neurol 40:388–395

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holden MK (2005) Virtual environments for motor rehabilitation: review. Cyberpsychol Behav 8:187–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (2006) Canadians in context—people with disabilities. Retrieved from Ontario Government website: http://www4.hrsdc.gc.ca/.3ndic.1t.4r@-eng.jsp?iid=40. Accessed 12 April 2012

  • Hung SS, Fisher AG, Cermak SA (1987) The performance of learning-disabled and normal young men on the test of visual-perceptual skills. Am J Occup Ther 41:790–797

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Judelson DA, Armstrong LE, Sökmen B, Roti MW, Casa DJ, Kellogg MD (2005) Effect of chronic caffeine intake on choice reaction time, mood, and visual vigilance. Physiol Behav 85:629–634

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jung CM, Ronda JM, Czeisler CA, Wright KP (2011) Comparison of sustained attention assessed by auditory and visual psychomotor vigilance tasks prior and during sleep deprivation. J Sleep Res 20:348–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby JR, Silvestri R, Allingham BH, Parrila R, La Fave CB (2008) Learning strategies and study approaches of postsecondary students with dyslexia. J Learn Disabil 41:85–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klatzky RL, Lederman SJ, Langseth S (2003) Watching a cursor distorts haptically guided reproduction of mouse movements. J Exp Psychol 9:228–235

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonard P, Foxcroft C, Kroukamp T (1988) Are visual-perceptual and visual-motor skills separate abilities? Percept Mot Skills 67:423–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leton DA, Miyamoto KK, Rickman DB (1987) Psychometric classification of learning disabled students. Psychol Sch 24:201–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman HR, Tharion WJ, Shukitt-Hale B, Speckman KL, Tulley R (2002) Effects of caffeine, sleep loss, and stress on cognitive performance and mood during U.S. Navy SEAL training. Psychopharmacology 164:250–261

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur CA (1998) Word processing with speech synthesis and word prediction: effects on the dialogue journal writing of students with learning disabilities. Learn Disabil Q 21:151–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Marrero I, Estrada-Hernandez N (2008) Assistive technology as an instructional tool for students with written language disabilities. TechTrends 52:56–62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCue M, Shelly C, Goldstein G (1986) Intellectual, academic, and neuropsychological performance levels in learning disabled adults. J Learn Disabil 19:233–236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minogue J, Jones GM (2006) Haptics in education: exploring an untapped sensory modality. Rev Educ Res 76:317–348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oatley K, Keltner D, Jenkins JM (2006) Understanding emotions, 2nd edn. Blackwell, Malden, MA, pp 268–271

    Google Scholar 

  • Orr AC, Hammig SB (2009) Inclusive postsecondary strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities: a review of the literature. Learn Disabil Q 32:181–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Owen SE, McKinlay IA (1997) Motor difficulties in children with developmental disorders of speech and language. Child Care Health Dev 23:315–325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act-PIPEDA (2004) S.C. 2000, c. 5. Minister of Justice, Office of the Privacy Commisionner of Canada. Retrieved from: https://www.priv.gc.ca/leg_c/legislation/02_06_07_e.asp

  • Piaget J, Inhelder B (1969) The psychology of the child. Basic Books, New York

  • Ramus F, Rosen S, Dakin SC, Day BL, Castellote JM, White S, Frith U (2003) Theories of developmental dyslexia: insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain J Neurol 126:841–865

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raskind M (1993) Assistive technology and adults: a blueprint for exploration and advancement. Learn Disabil Q 16:185–195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raskind MH, Higgins EL (1998) Assistive technology for postsecondary students with learning disabilities: an overview. J Learn Disabil 31:27–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regian WJ, Shebilske WL (1992) Virtual reality: an instructional medium for visual-spatial tasks. J Commun 42:136–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds CR (2008) Koppitz developmental scoring system for the Bender Gestalt test (KOPPITZ-2). J Psychoeduc Assess 26:195–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson AE, Collaer M (2011) Virtual navigation performance: the relationship to field of view and prior video gaming experience. Percept Mot Skills 112:477–498

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riva G (2003) Virtual environments in clinical psychology. Cyberpsychol Behav 40:68–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose FD, Brooks BM, Attree EA (2000) Virtual reality in vocational training of people with learning disabilities. In: Sharkey P, Cesararis A, Pugnetti L, Rizzo A (eds) Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on disability. Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies, Italy, pp 129–135

    Google Scholar 

  • San Diego JP, Cox MJ, Quinn BFA, Newton JT, Banergee A, Woolford M (2012) Researching haptics in higher education: the complexity of developing haptics virtual learning systems and evaluating its impact on students’ learning. Comput Educ 59:156–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith A, Sutherland D, Chrisopher G (2005) Effect of repeated doses of caffeine on mood and performance of alert and fatigued volunteers. J Psychopharmacol 19:620–626

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobotka KR, Black W, Hill SD, Porter RJ (1977) Some psychological correlates of developmental dyslexia. J Learn Disabil 10:42–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song H, Kim J, Tenzek KE, Min Lee K (2013) The effects of competition and competitiveness upon intrinsic motivation in exergames. Comput Hum Behav 29:1702–1708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoodley CJ, Talcott JB, Carter EL, Witton C, Stein JF (2000) Selective deficits of vibrotactile sensitivity in dyslexic readers. Neurosci Lett 295:13–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick BG, Fidell LS (2007) Using multivariate statistics, 5th edn. Pearson Education, Boston, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • The Ontario Human Rights Commission (2002) Education and disabilities; Human Rights Issues in Ontario’s Education System. Retrieved from http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/resources/discussion_consultation/Education/pdf. Accessed 5 Feb 20012

  • Tremblay L, Emptage E, Whissell C, Chebbi B, Bouchard S (2011) Visual motor assessment tests and assistive technologies; description and application in post-secondary educational achievement of adults with learning disabilities. In: Madsen LE (ed) Achievement tests: types, interpretations and uses. Nova Science, Hauppauge, pp 1–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel S (1990) Gender differences in intelligence, language, visual-motor abilities, and academic achievement in students with learning disabilities: a review of the literature. J Learn Disabil 23:44–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel SA, Holt JK (2003) A comparative study of adults with and without self-reported learning disabilities in six English-speaking populations: what have we learned? Dyslexia Int J Res Pract 9:193–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Voytecki K, Anderson P, Semon P, Seok S (2009) Assistive technology supports for postsecondary students with disabilities. In: Gibson et al. (eds) Proceedings of society for information technology and teacher education international conference, pp 3990–3995

  • Welch RB, Sampanes AC (2008) Adapting to virtual environments: visual-motor skill acquisition versus perceptual recalibration. Displays 29:152–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wille D, Eng K, Holper L, Chevrier E, Hauser Y, Kiper D, Pyk P, Schlegel S, Meyer-Heim A (2009) Virtual reality-based paediatric interactive therapy system (PITS) for improvement of arm and hand function in children with motor impairment—a pilot study. Dev Neurorehabil 12:44–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodard RJ, Surburg PR (1997) Fundamental gross motor skill performance by girls and boys with learning disabilities. Percept Mot Skills 84:867–870

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This project was financially supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Canada Research Chair (S. Bouchard), and by Health Canada and the “Consortium national de formation en santé (CNFS).” The views are not necessarily Health Canada’s. The authors thank Jason Morin, learning strategist for Laurentian University Accessibility Services, for helping with participants’ recruitment.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON, Canada

    Line Tremblay, Brahim Chebbi, Krystel Cimon-Lambert & Jessica Carmichael

  2. Université du Québec en Outaouais, Gatineau, QC, Canada

    Stéphane Bouchard

Authors
  1. Line Tremblay
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brahim Chebbi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Stéphane Bouchard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Krystel Cimon-Lambert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jessica Carmichael
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Line Tremblay.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Tremblay, L., Chebbi, B., Bouchard, S. et al. Learning disabilities and visual-motor skills; comparing assessment from a hapto-virtual reality tool and Bender-Gestalt test. Virtual Reality 18, 49–60 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-014-0242-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-014-0242-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation