Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Biodegradable magnesium implants for orthopedic applications

  • Review
  • Published:
Journal of Materials Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The clinical application of degradable orthopedic magnesium implants is a tangible vision in medical science. This interdisciplinary review discusses many different aspects of magnesium alloys comprising the manufacturing process and the latest research. We present the challenges of the manufacturing process of magnesium implants with the risk of contamination with impurities and its effect on corrosion. Furthermore, this paper provides a summary of the current examination methods used in in vitro and in vivo research of magnesium alloys. The influence of various parameters (most importantly the effect of the corrosive media) in in vitro studies and an overview about the current in vivo research is given.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Reference

  1. Chao EY, Aro HT, Lewallen DG, Kelly PJ (1989) Clin Orthop Relat Res 241:24

    Google Scholar 

  2. Nagels J, Stokdijk M, Rozing PM (2003) J Shoulder Elbow Surg 12:35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Uhthoff HK, Finnegan M (1983) J Bone Joint Surg Br 65:66

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Staiger MP, Pietak AM, Huadmai J, Dias G (2006) Biomaterials 27:1728

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Sullivan PK, Smith JF, Rozzelle AA (1994) Plast Reconstr Surg 94:589

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Hartwig A (2001) Mutat Res 475:113

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Saris N-EL, Mervaala E, Karppanen H, Khawaja JA, Lewenstam A (2000) Clin Chim Acta 294:1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Witte F, Kaese V, Haferkamp H, Switzer E, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Wirth CJ, Windhagen H (2005) Biomaterials 26:3557

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Huan ZG, Leeflang MA, Zhou J, Fratila-Apachitei LE, Duszczyk J (2010) J Mater Sci Mater Med 21:2623

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Witte F, Hort N, Vogt C, Cohen S, Kainer KU, Willumeit R, Feyerabend F (2008) Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci 12:63

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. El-Rahman SSA (2003) Pharmacol Res 47:189

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Yumiko N, Yukari T, Yasuhide T, Tadashi S, Yoshio I (1997) Fund Appl Toxicol 37:106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Yang L, Zhang E (2009) Mater Sci Eng C 29:1691

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Witte F (2010) Acta Biomater 6:1680

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Song GL, Atrens A (1999) Adv Eng Mater 1:11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Westenge H, Aune TK (2005) Magnesium technology: metallurgy, design data, applications, 1st edn. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  17. Lunder O, Nisancioglu K, Hansen RS (1993) SAE Special Publ 962:117

    Google Scholar 

  18. Makar GL, Kruger L (1993) Int Mater Rev 38:138

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Bühler K (1990) Metallurgy 44:748

    Google Scholar 

  20. Nayeb-Hashemi AA, Clark JB (1985) Bull Alloy Phase Diagr 6:235

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Haughton JL, Payne RI (1943) J Inst Met 54:275

    Google Scholar 

  22. Nayeb-Hashemi AA, Clark JB (1985) Bull Alloy Phase Diagr 6:238

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Hansen M (1927) J Inst Metal 37:93

    Google Scholar 

  24. Hanawalt JD, Nelson CE, Peloubet JA (1942) Trans AIME 147:273

    Google Scholar 

  25. Hillis JE, Reichek KN (1986) SAE technical paper series #860288

  26. Hillis JE, Murray RW (1987) SDCE 14th International die cast congress and exposition paper no. G-T87-003

  27. Froats A, Aune TK, Hawke D, Unsworth W, Hillis JE (1987) Metals handbook, 1st edn. ASM Int Material Park, Ohio

    Google Scholar 

  28. Olsen AL (1991) Translation of paper presented at the Bauteil’91. DVM, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  29. Lunder O, Lein JE, Aune TK, Nisancioglu K (1989) Corrosion 45:741

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Nisancioglu K, Lunder O, Aune TK (1990) Proceedings of the 47th World Magnesium Association, McLean

  31. Emley EF (1966) Principles of magnesium technology, 1st edn. Pergamon Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  32. Hawke D (1975) SYCE 8th International Die Casting Exposition and Congress Paper No. G-T75-114

  33. Tawil DS (1987) Magnesium technology. In: Proceedings of the Conference of the institute of metals. The Institute of Metals, London

  34. Hake D (1975) SYCE 8th international die casting exposition and congress paper no. G-T75-114

  35. Loose WS (1946) Corrosion and protection of magnesium, 1st edn. ASM International, Ohio

    Google Scholar 

  36. Nelson CE (1944) Trans AIME 159:392

    Google Scholar 

  37. Robinson H-A, George PF (1954) Corrosion 10:182

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Polmaer IJ (1992) Physical metallurgy of magnesium alloys. DGM Informationsgesellschaft, Oberursel

    Google Scholar 

  39. Hillis JE (1983) SAE technical paper #830523

  40. Reichek KN, Clark KL, Hillis JE (1985) SAE technical paper series #850417

  41. Ben Hamu G, Eliezer D, Wagner L (2009) J Alloys Compd 468:222

    Google Scholar 

  42. Chiu KY, Wong MH, Cheng FT, Man HC (2007) Surf Coat Technol 202:590

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Hiromoto S, Yamamoto A (2009) Electrochim Acta 54:7085

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Wang H, Estrin Y, Fu G, Song G, Zúberová Z (2007) Adv Eng Mater 9:967

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Gray JE, Luan B (2002) J Alloys Compd 336:88

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Song G (2005) Adv Eng Mater 7:563

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Tamar Y, Mendler D (2008) Electrochim Acta 53:5118

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ambat R, Aung NN, Zhou W (2000) Corros Sci 42:1433

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Aung NN, Zhou W (2010) Corros Sci 52:589

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Xin Y, Hu T, Chu PK (2011) Acta Biomater 7:1452

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Li Y, Hodgson PD, Wen C (2011) J Mater Sci 46:365. doi:10.1007/s10853-010-4843-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Zhang S, Li J, Song Y, Zhao C, Zhang X, Xie C, Zhang Y, Tao H, He Y, Jiang Y, Bian Y (2009) Mater Sci Eng C 29:1907

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Johnson I, Perchy D, Liu H (2011) J Biomed Mater Res A 100A:477

    Google Scholar 

  54. Chen D, He Y, Tao H, Zhang Y, Jiang Y, Zhang X, Zhang S (2011) Int J Mol Med 28:343

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Gu XN, Li N, Zheng YF, Ruan L (2011) Mater Sci Eng B 176:1778

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Feyerabend F, Fischer J, Holtz J, Witte F, Willumeit R, Drucker H, Vogt C, Hort N (2010) Acta Biomater 6:1834

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Fischer J, Pröfrock D, Hort N, Willumeit R, Feyerabend F (2010) Mater Sci Eng B 176:830

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Song G (2007) Corros Sci 49:1696

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Harandi SE, Idris MH, Jafari H (2011) Mater Des 32:2596

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Yamamoto A, Hiromoto S (2009) Mater Sci Eng C 29:1559

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Zhang E, Yang L (2008) Mater Sci Eng A 497:111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Kirkland NT, Birbilis N, Staiger MP (2012) Acta Biomater 8:925

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Mueller W-D, Nascimento ML, de Mele MF (2010) Acta Biomater 6:1749

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Witte F, Fischer J, Nellesen J, Crostack HA, Kaese V, Pisch A, Beckmann F, Windhagen H (2006) Biomaterials 27:1013

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Walker J, Shadanbaz S, Kirkland NT, Stace E, Woodfield T, Staiger MP, Dias GJ (2012) J Biomed Mater Res B 100:1134

    Google Scholar 

  66. Kirkland NT, Lespagnol J, Birbilis N, Staiger MP (2010) Corros Sci 52:287

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Mueller W-D, de Mele MF, Nascimento ML, Zeddis M (2008) J Biomed Mater Res A 90A:487

    Google Scholar 

  68. Virtanen S (2011) Mater Sci Eng B 176:1600

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Roach P, Farrar D, Perry CC (2005) J Am Chem Soc 127:8168

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Kirkland NT, Birbilis N, Walker J, Woodfield T, Dias GJ, Staiger MP (2010) J Biomed Mater Res B 95:91

    Google Scholar 

  71. Liu CL, Wang YJ, Zeng RC, Zhang XM, Huang WJ, Chu PK (2010) Corros Sci 52:3341

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Rettig R, Virtanen S (2008) J Biomed Mater Res A 85:167

    Google Scholar 

  73. Wang Y, Lim CS, Lim CV, Yong MS, Teo EK, Moh LN (2010) Mater Sci Eng C 31:579

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Liu CL, Xin Y, Tian X, Chu PK (2007) J Mater Res 22:1806

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Feyerabend F, Drucker H, Laipple D, Vogt C, Stekker M, Hort N, Willumeit R (2012) J Mater Sci Mater Med 23:9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Alvarez-Lopez M, Pereda MD, del Valle JA, Fernandez-Lorenzo M, Garcia-Alonso MC, Ruano OA, Escudero ML (2010) Acta Biomater 6:1763

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Xin Y, Hu T, Chu PK (2011) Corros Sci 53:1522

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Xin Y, Huo K, Tao H, Tang G, Chu PK (2008) Acta Biomater 4:2008

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Willumeit R, Fischer J, Feyerabend F, Hort N, Bismayer U, Heidrich S, Mihailova B (2011) Acta Biomater 7:2704

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Kirkland NT, Waterman J, Birbilis N, Dias G, Woodfield TB, Hartshorn RM, Staiger MP (2012) J Mater Sci Mater Med 23:283

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Zainal Abidin NI, Atrens AD, Martin D, Atrens A (2011) Corros Sci 53:862

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Kannan MB, Raman RK (2009) J Biomed Mater Res A 93A:1050

    Google Scholar 

  83. Song G, Song S (2007) Adv Eng Mater 9:298

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Gu XN, Li N, Zheng YF, Kang F, Wang JT, Ruan L (2011) Mater Sci Eng B 176:1802

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Kannan MB (2010) Mater Lett 64:739

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Waizy H, Weizbauer A, Maibaum M, Witte F, Windhagen H, Lucas A, Denkena B, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Thorey F (2011) J Mater Sci Mater Med 23:649

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Waizy H, Weizbauer A, Modrejewski C, Witte F, Windhagen H, Lucas A, Kieke M, Denkena B, Behrens P, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Bach F-W, Thorey F (2012) Biomed Eng Online 11:12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. An YH, Friedman RJ (1998) Animal models of orthopedic research, 1st edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  89. Pearce AI, Richards RG, Milz S, Schneider E, Pearce SG (2007) Eur Cell Mater 13:1

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Castellani C, Lindtner RA, Hausbrandt P, Tschegg E, Stanzl-Tschegg SE, Zanoni G, Beck S, Weinberg AM (2011) Acta Biomater 7:432

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Bostman O, Paivarinta U, Partio E, Vasenius J, Manninen M, Rokkanen P (1992) J Bone Joint Surg Am 74:1021

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Chen YQ, Dai KR, Qiu SJ, Zhu ZA (1994) Chin Med J (Engl.) 107:766

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Erdmann N, Bondarenko A, Hewicker-Trautwein M, Angrisani N, Reifenrath J, Lucas A, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2010) Biomed Eng Online 9:63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Erdmann N, Angrisani N, Reifenrath J, Lucas A, Thorey F, Bormann D, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2011) Acta Biomater 7:1421

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Huang J, Ren Y, Jiang Y, Zhang B, Yang K (2007) Front Mater Sci Chin 1:405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Huehnerschulte TA, Angrisani N, Rittershaus D, Bormann D, Windhagen H, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2011) Materials 4:1144

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Krause A, von der Höh N, Bormann N, Krause C, Bach F-W, Windhagen H, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2010) J Mater Sci 45:624. doi:10.1007/s10853-009-3936-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Reifenrath J, Bormann D, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2011) Magnesium alloys—corrosion and surface treatments, 1st edn. Intech, Rijek

    Google Scholar 

  99. Thomann M, Krause C, Bormann D, von der Höh N, Windhagen H, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2009) Mat-wiss Werkst 40:82

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Bondarenko A, Hewicker-Trautwein M, Erdmann N, Angrisani N, Reifenrath J, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2011) Biomed Eng Online 10:32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Zhang S, Zhang X, Zhao C, Li J, Song Y, Xie C, Tao H, Zhang Y, He Y, Jiang Y, Bian Y (2010) Acta Biomater 6:626

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Erbel R, Di MC, Bartunek J, Bonnier J, de BB, Eberli FR, Erne P, Haude M, Heublein B, Horrigan M, Ilsley C, Bose D, Koolen J, Luscher TF, Weissman N, Waksman R (2007) Lancet 369:1869

    Google Scholar 

  103. Waksman R, Erbel R, Di MC, Bartunek J, de BB, Eberli FR, Erne P, Haude M, Horrigan M, Ilsley C, Bose D, Bonnier H, Koolen J, Luscher TF, Weissman NJ (2009) JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2:312

    Google Scholar 

  104. Li Z, Gu X, Lou S, Zheng Y (2008) Biomaterials 29:1329

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. von der Höh N, Bormann D, Lucas A, Denkena B, Hackenbroich C, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2009) Adv Eng Mater 40:88

    Google Scholar 

  106. Witte F, Reifenrath J, Müller PP, Crostack HA, Nellesen J, Bach F-W, Bormann D, Rudert M (2006) Mat-wiss Werkst 37:504

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Witte F, Ulrich H, Palm C, Willbold E (2007) J Biomed Mater Res A 81:757

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Lalk M, Reifenrath J, Rittershaus D, Bormann D, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2010) Mat-wiss Werkst 41:1025

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Reifenrath J, Krause A, Bormann D, von Rechenberg B, Windhagen H, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2010) Mat-wiss Werkst 41:1054

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Witte F, Fischer J, Nellesen J, Vogt C, Vogt J, Donath T, Beckmann F (2010) Acta Biomater 6:1792

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Xu L, Yu G, Zhang E, Pan F, Yang K (2007) J Biomed Mater Res A 83:703

    Google Scholar 

  112. Remennik S, Bartsch I, Willbold E, Witte F, Shechtman D (2011) Mater Sci Eng B 176:1653

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Revell PA, Damien E, Zhang XS, Evans P, Howlett CR (2004) Key Eng Mater 254–256:447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Zreiqat H, Howlett CR, Zannettino A, Evans P, Schulze-Tanzil G, Knabe C, Shakibaei M (2002) J Biomed Mater Res 62:175

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Shikinami Y, Okuno M (1999) Biomaterials 20:859

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Witte F, Ulrich H, Rudert M, Willbold E (2007) J Biomed Mater Res A 81:748

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Kraus T, Fischerauer SF, Hanzi AC, Uggowitzer PJ, Loffler JF, Weinberg AM (2012) Acta Biomater 8:1230

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Hampp C, Ullmann B, Reifenrath J, Angrisani N, Dziuba D, Bormann D, Seitz J-M, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2011) Adv Eng Mater 14:B28

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Thomann M, Krause C, Angrisani N, Bormann D, Hassel T, Windhagen H, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2010) J Biomed Mater Res A 93:1609

    Google Scholar 

  120. Rittershaus D, Ullmann B, Bormann D, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2011) EuroBioMat E 51

  121. Ullmann B, Reifenrath J, Dziuba D, Seitz J-M, Bormann D, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2011) Materials 4:2197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Beerwald A (1944) Metallwirtschaft 23:404

    Google Scholar 

  123. Fahrenhorst E, Bulian W (1941) Z Metallkd 33:31

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Mitchell DW (1948) Trans AIME 175:570

    Google Scholar 

  125. Siebel G (1948) Z Metallkd 39:22

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Yensen TD, Ziegler NA (1931) Trans AIME 95:313

    Google Scholar 

  127. Gu X, Zheng Y, Cheng Y, Zhong S, Xi T (2009) Biomaterials 30:484

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Datta M, Chou D-T, Hong D, Saha P, Chung SJ, Bouen L, Sirinterikci A, Ramanathan M, Roy A, Kumta PN (2011) Mater Sci Eng B 176:1637

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Park RS, Kim YK, Sook JL, Jiang Y, Park IS, Yun YH, Bae TS, Lee MH (2012) J Biomed Mater Res B 100B:911

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Wen Z, Wu C, Dai C, Yang F (2009) J Alloys Compd 488:392

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Gu XN, Zheng YF, Chen LJ (2009) Biomed Mater 4:0650111

    Google Scholar 

  132. Kannan MB, Raman RK (2008) Biomaterials 29:2306

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Xin Y, Hu T, Chu PK (2010) J Electrochem Soc 157:C238

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Walter R, Kannan MB (2010) Mater Lett 65:748

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Wang Y, Wei M, Gao J, Hu J, Zhang Y (2008) Mater Lett 62:2181

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Wan Y, Xiong G, Luo H, He F, Huang Y, Zhou X (2008) Mater Des 29:2034

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Xu L, Zhang E, Yin D, Zeng S, Yang K (2008) J Mater Sci Mater Med 19:1017

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Hanzi AC, Gerber I, Schinhammer M, Loffler JF, Uggowitzer PJ (2010) Acta Biomater 6:1824

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Rosalbino F, De NS, Saccone A, Angelini E, Delfino S (2010) J Mater Sci Mater Med 21:1091

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Hanzi AC, Gunde P, Schinhammer M, Uggowitzer PJ (2009) Acta Biomater 5:162

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Rettig R, Virtanen S (2009) J Biomed Mater Res A 88:359

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support given by German research society (DFG) within the collaborative research project (SFB 599). We thank Christopher Müller for the design of Fig. 2.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Hannover Medical School, Anna-von-Borries-Str.1-7, 30625, Hannover, Germany

    Hazibullah Waizy, Andreas Weizbauer & Henning Windhagen

  2. Institute of Materials Science, Leibniz University of Hannover, An der Universität 2, 30823, Garbsen, Germany

    Jan-Marten Seitz & Friedrich-Wilhelm Bach

  3. Small Animal Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 9, 30559, Hannover, Germany

    Janin Reifenrath

  4. Clinic for Small Animal Surgery and Reproduction, Centre of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Veterinärstr. 13, 80539, Munich, Germany

    Andrea Meyer-Lindenberg

  5. Institute of Production Engineering and Machine Tools (IFW), Leibnitz University of Hannover, An der Universität 2, 30823, Garbsen, Germany

    Berend Denkena

Authors
  1. Hazibullah Waizy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jan-Marten Seitz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Janin Reifenrath
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Andreas Weizbauer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Friedrich-Wilhelm Bach
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Andrea Meyer-Lindenberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Berend Denkena
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Henning Windhagen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hazibullah Waizy.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Waizy, H., Seitz, JM., Reifenrath, J. et al. Biodegradable magnesium implants for orthopedic applications. J Mater Sci 48, 39–50 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-012-6572-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-012-6572-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation