Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Environmental, Sociocultural, Behavioral, and Biological Factors Associated with Cognitive Decline, Alzheimer’s Disease, and Other Types of Dementia in Black Americans

  • Published:
Current Epidemiology Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose of Review

This narrative review summarizes environmental, sociocultural, behavioral, and biological factors associated with cognitive decline and dementia in Black Americans.

Recent Findings

Variations in environmental factors (education, toxins) contribute to poor cognition in Blacks. Historical context, early-life educational experiences, and environmental exposures should be considered for addressing late-life cognitive disparities. Sociocultural (stress, discrimination, social networks, social activity, loneliness) and behavioral (depression, coping, health behaviors) factors can have positive and negative implications for cognitive aging. Given these factors are not consistently shown to play a role in maintaining cognition in Blacks, further examination is needed. Cardiometabolic conditions increase the risk of cognitive issues and are more common in Blacks; thus, examination of biological mechanisms (inflammation, vascular changes, etc.) warrants further study.

Summary

Future studies should explore the impact of education and segregation and identify mechanisms linking stress and discrimination to cognitive outcomes. Further, culturally tailored programs focused on preventative behaviors are needed to enhance health outcomes and reduce disparities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. Alzheimer’s Association. Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement. 2023;19(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.13016.

  2. Byrd DR, Gee GC, Tarraf W. Black-white mental status trajectories: what ages do differences emerge? SSM Popul Health. 2018;6:169–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2018.09.008.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Beydoun MA, Weiss J, Beydoun HA, Hossain S, Maldonado AI, Shen B, et al. Race, apoe genotypes, and cognitive decline among middle-aged urban adults. Alzheimers res ther. 2021;13(1):120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-021-00855-y.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. •• Eubank JM, Oberlin DJ, Alto A, Sahyoun NR, Asongwed E, Monroe-Lord L, et al. Effects of lifestyle factors on cognition in minority population of older adults: a review. Front Nutr. 2022;9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.841070. (This review summarizes, in general, what is known about the relationship between risk factors and cognition and, in particular what is known about this relationship in minority populations. Findings indicate that studies in minority populations are limited and warrant more targeted research and interventions.)

  5. Beydoun MA, Weiss J, Beydoun HA, Fanelli-Kuczmarski MT, Hossain S, El-Hajj ZW, et al. Pathways explaining racial/ethnic disparities in incident all-cause and Alzheimer’s disease dementia among older us men and women. Alzheimers Dement (N Y). 2022;8(1):e12275. https://doi.org/10.1002/trc2.12275.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Federal interagency forum on aging-related statistics. Older Americans 2016: key indicators of well-being. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Hill CV, Pérez-Stable EJ, Anderson NA, Bernard MA. The National Institute on Aging health disparities research framework. Ethn Dis. 2015;25(3):245–54. https://doi.org/10.18865/ed.25.3.245.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Farina MP, Hayward MD, Kim JK, Crimmins EM. Racial and educational disparities in dementia and dementia-free life expectancy. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2019;75(7):e105–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz046.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Lord BD, Harris AR, Ambs S. The impact of social and environmental factors on cancer biology in Black Americans. Cancer Causes Control. 2023;34(3):191–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-022-01664-w.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Lamar M, Lerner AJ, James BD, Yu L, Glover CM, Wilson RS, et al. Relationship of early-life residence and educational experience to level and change in cognitive functioning: results of the minority aging research study. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2020;75(7):e81–92. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz031.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Peterson RL, George KM, Barnes LL, Gilsanz P, Mayeda ER, Glymour MM, et al. Association of timing of school desegregation in the United States with late-life cognition in the study of healthy aging in African Americans (star) cohort. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(10):e2129052. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.29052.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Aloizou A-M, Siokas V, Vogiatzi C, Peristeri E, Docea AO, Petrakis D, et al. Pesticides, cognitive functions and dementia: a review. Toxicol Lett. 2020;326:31–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.03.005.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. You R, Ho Y-S, Chang RC-C. The pathogenic effects of particulate matter on neurodegeneration: a review. J Biomed Sci. 2022;29(1):15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12929-022-00799-x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Zhao Y-L, Qu Y, Ou Y-N, Zhang Y-R, Tan L, Yu J-T. Environmental factors and risks of cognitive impairment and dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res Rev. 2021;72:101504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2021.101504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Peters R, Ee N, Peters J, Booth A, Mudway I, Anstey KJ. Air pollution and dementia: a systematic review. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2019;70(s1):S145–63. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-180631.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Nguyen VK, Kahana A, Heidt J, Polemi K, Kvasnicka J, Jolliet O, et al. A comprehensive analysis of racial disparities in chemical biomarker concentrations in United States women, 1999–2014. Environ Int. 2020;137:105496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105496.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Tessum CW, Apte JS, Goodkind AL, Muller NZ, Mullins KA, Paolella DA, et al. Inequity in consumption of goods and services adds to racial–ethnic disparities in air pollution exposure. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2019;116(13):6001–6. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1818859116.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Liu J, Clark LP, Bechle MJ, Hajat A, Kim SY, Robinson AL, et al. Disparities in air pollution exposure in the United States by race/ethnicity and income, 1990–2010. Environ Health Perspect. 2021;129(12):127005. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp8584.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Younan D, Wang X, Gruenewald T, Gatz M, Serre ML, Vizuete W, et al. Racial/ethnic disparities in alzheimer’s disease risk: role of exposure to ambient fine particles. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2021;77(5):977–85. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glab231.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Loop MS, Kent ST, Al-Hamdan MZ, Crosson WL, Estes SM, Estes MG Jr, et al. Fine particulate matter and incident cognitive impairment in the reasons for geographic and racial differences in stroke (REGARDS) cohort. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(9):e75001. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075001.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Zuelsdorff M, Okonkwo OC, Norton D, Barnes LL, Graham KL, Clark LR, et al. Stressful life events and racial disparities in cognition among middle-aged and older adults. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2020;73(2):671–82. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-190439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. •• Chen R, Weuve J, Misra S, Cuevas A, Kubzansky LD, Williams DR. Racial disparities in cognitive function among middle-aged and older adults: the roles of cumulative stress exposures across the life course. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2022;77(2):357–64. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glab099. (Large cross-sectional study among 5947 Black and White adults. Results indicate that cumulative life course stress expsoures across 10 domains explain a modest proportion of Black–White cognitive disparities in executive function and episodic memory. Further these stress expsoures are socially patterned and are more common among Black Americans.)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Zuelsdorff M, Gleason CE, Kind AJ, Koscik RL, Johnson SC, Okonkwo OC. Lifetime stressful experiences, racial disparities, and cognitive performance: findings from the Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer’s Prevention (WRAP) Study. Alzheimer’s Dementia. 2017;13(7):P212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2017.07.085.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Allen JO, Mezuk B, Byrd DR, Abelson JL, Rafferty J, Abelson J, et al. Mechanisms of cardiometabolic health outcomes and disparities: what characteristics of chronic stressors are linked to hpa-axis dysregulation? J Aging Health. 2022;34(3):448–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/08982643221085903.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Aggarwal NT, Wilson RS, Beck TL, Rajan KB, Mendes de Leon CF, Evans DA, et al. Perceived stress and change in cognitive function among adults 65 years and older. Psychosom Med. 2014;76(1):80–5. https://doi.org/10.1097/psy.0000000000000016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Luo Y, Xu J, Granberg E, Wentworth WM. A longitudinal study of social status, perceived discrimination, and physical and emotional health among older adults. Res Aging. 2012;34(3):275–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027511426151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Korten NC, Comijs HC, Penninx BW, Deeg DJ. Perceived stress and cognitive function in older adults: which aspect of perceived stress is important? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2017;32(4):439–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4486.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Turner AD, James BD, Capuano AW, Aggarwal NT, Barnes LL. Perceived stress and cognitive decline in different cognitive domains in a cohort of older African Americans. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2017;25(1):25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2016.10.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Sims RC, Whitfield KE, Ayotte BJ, Gamaldo AA, Edwards CL, Allaire JC. Subjective memory in older African Americans. Exp Aging Res. 2011;37(2):220–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/0361073x.2011.555640.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Glover CM, Capuano AW, Wilson RS, Bennett DA, Barnes LL. Correlates of perceived stress among community-dwelling older African Americans. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(12):e0260749. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260749.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Byrd DR, Thorpe RJ Jr, Whitfield KE. Special issue: race and mental health among older adults: do depressive symptoms shape Blacks’ perceptions of stress over time? Innov aging. 2020;4(5):igaa022. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa022.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Whitfield KE, Forrester S, Thorpe RJ. A comparison of variances in age cohorts to understand longevity in African Americans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2019;74(Suppl_1):S27-s31. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glz214.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Sutin AR, Stephan Y, Carretta H, Terracciano A. Perceived discrimination and physical, cognitive, and emotional health in older adulthood. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;23(2):171–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2014.03.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Pugh E, De Vito A, Divers R, Robinson A, Weitzner DS, Calamia M. Social factors that predict cognitive decline in older African American adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2021;36(3):403–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Meza E, Peterson R, Gilsanz P, George KM, Miles SJ, Eng CW, et al. Perceived discrimination, nativity, and cognitive performance in a multiethnic study of older adults: findings from the Kaiser healthy aging and diverse life experiences study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2022;77(2):e65–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glab170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Barnes LL, Lewis TT, Begeny CT, Yu L, Bennett DA, Wilson RS. Perceived discrimination and cognition in older African Americans. J Int Neuropsychol Soc: JINS. 2012;18(5):856–65. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617712000628.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Hill-Jarrett TG, Jones MK. Gendered racism and subjective cognitive complaints among older Black women: the role of depression and coping. Clin neuropsychol. 2022;36(2):479–502. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1923804.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Coogan P, Schon K, Li S, Cozier Y, Bethea T, Rosenberg L. Experiences of racism and subjective cognitive function in African American women. Alzheimers dement (Amst). 2020;12(1):e12067. https://doi.org/10.1002/dad2.12067.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Barnes LL, Mendes de Leon CF, Wilson RS, Bienias JL, Evans DA. Social resources and cognitive decline in a population of older African Americans and Whites. Neurology. 2004;63(12):2322–6. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000147473.04043.b3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Kelly ME, Duff H, Kelly S, McHugh Power JE, Brennan S, Lawlor BA, et al. The impact of social activities, social networks, social support and social relationships on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: a systematic review. Syst Rev. 2017;6(1):259. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-017-0632-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Sharifian N, Manly JJ, Brickman AM, Zahodne LB. Social network characteristics and cognitive functioning in ethnically diverse older adults: the role of network size and composition. Neuropsychology. 2019;33(7):956–63. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000564.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. McSorley VE, Howard C, Shah RC, James BD, Boyle PA, Barnes LL. The relationship of John Henryism with cognitive function and decline in older Black adults. Psychosom med. 2022;84(7):766–72. https://doi.org/10.1097/psy.0000000000001113.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Amini R, Sahli M, Ganai S. Cigarette smoking and cognitive function among older adults living in the community. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2021;28(4):616–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2020.1806199.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Muhammad T, Govindu M, Srivastava S. Relationship between chewing tobacco, smoking, consuming alcohol and cognitive impairment among older adults in india: a cross-sectional study. BMC Geriatr. 2021;21(1):85. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02027-x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Ilomaki J, Jokanovic N, Tan EC, Lonnroos E. Alcohol consumption, dementia and cognitive decline: an overview of systematic reviews. Curr Clin Pharmacol. 2015;10(3):204–12. https://doi.org/10.2174/157488471003150820145539.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Visontay R, Rao RT, Mewton L. Alcohol use and dementia: new research directions. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2021;34(2):165–70. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0000000000000679.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. van den Brink AC, Brouwer-Brolsma EM, Berendsen AAM, van de Rest O. The mediterranean, dietary approaches to stop hypertension (dash), and mediterranean-dash intervention for neurodegenerative delay (mind) diets are associated with less cognitive decline and a lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease: a review. Adv Nutr. 2019;10(6):1040–65. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmz054.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Dominguez LJ, Veronese N, Vernuccio L, Catanese G, Inzerillo F, Salemi G, et al. Nutrition, physical activity, and other lifestyle factors in the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. Nutrients. 2021;13(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13114080

  49. Gu Y, Beato JM, Amarante E, Chesebro AG, Manly JJ, Schupf N, et al. Assessment of leisure time physical activity and brain health in a multiethnic cohort of older adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(11):e2026506. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.26506.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Park SY, Setiawan VW, White LR, Wu AH, Cheng I, Haiman CA, et al. Modifying effects of race and ethnicity and apoe on the association of physical activity with risk of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. Alzheimers Dement. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12677.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Valenzuela PL, Castillo-García A, Morales JS, de la Villa P, Hampel H, Emanuele E, et al. Exercise benefits on Alzheimer’s disease: state-of-the-science. Ageing res rev. 2020;62:101108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2020.101108.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Ma Y, Liang L, Zheng F, Shi L, Zhong B, Xie W. Association between sleep duration and cognitive decline. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(9):e2013573. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.13573.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Xu W, Tan CC, Zou JJ, Cao XP, Tan L. Sleep problems and risk of all-cause cognitive decline or dementia: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2020;91(3):236–44. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2019-321896.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Zhu W, Wadley VG, Howard VJ, Hutto B, Blair SN, Hooker SP. Objectively measured physical activity and cognitive function in older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49(1):47–53. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000001079.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Barthold D, Joyce G, Wharton W, Kehoe P, Zissimopoulos J. The association of multiple anti-hypertensive medication classes with Alzheimer’s disease incidence across sex, race, and ethnicity. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(11):e0206705. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206705.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Zhang X, Wen J, Zhang Z. Statins use and risk of dementia: A dose-response meta analysis. Medicine. 2018;97(30):e11304. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000011304

  57. Yang JJ, Keohane LM, Pan X, Qu R, Shu XO, Lipworth LP, et al. Association of healthy lifestyles with risk of alzheimer’s disease and related dementias in low-income Black and White Americans. Neurology. 2022;99(9):e944–53. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0000000000200774.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Thacker EL, Gillett SR, Wadley VG, Unverzagt FW, Judd SE, McClure LA, et al. The American Heart Association Life’s simple 7 and incident cognitive impairment: the reasons for geographic and racial differences in stroke (REGARDS) study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2014;3(3):e000635. https://doi.org/10.1161/jaha.113.000635.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Dhana K, Barnes LL, Liu X, Agarwal P, Desai P, Krueger KR, et al. Genetic risk, adherence to a healthy lifestyle, and cognitive decline in African Americans and European Americans. Alzheimers dement. 2022;18(4):572–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12435.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Dhana K, Franco OH, Ritz EM, Ford CN, Desai P, Krueger KR, et al. Healthy lifestyle and life expectancy with and without Alzheimer’s dementia: population based cohort study. BMJ. 2022;377:e068390. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2021-068390.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Maraboto C, Ferdinand KC. Update on hypertension in African-Americans. Prog cardiovasc dis. 2020;63(1):33–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2019.12.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Ferdinand DP, Nedunchezhian S, Ferdinand KC. Hypertension in African Americans: advances in community outreach and public health approaches. Prog cardiovasc dis. 2020;63(1):40–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2019.12.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Ferdinand KC, Yadav K, Nasser SA, Clayton-Jeter HD, Lewin J, Cryer DR, et al. Disparities in hypertension and cardiovascular disease in Blacks: the critical role of medication adherence. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2017;19(10):1015–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/jch.13089.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Tsao CW, Aday AW, Almarzooq ZI, Alonso A, Beaton AZ, Bittencourt MS, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2022 update: a report from the American heart association. Circulation. 2022;145(8):e153–639. https://doi.org/10.1161/cir.0000000000001052.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Wolters FJ, Segufa RA, Darweesh SKL, Bos D, Ikram MA, Sabayan B, et al. Coronary heart disease, heart failure, and the risk of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Alzheimers dement. 2018;14(11):1493–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.01.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Emdin CA, Rothwell PM, Salimi-Khorshidi G, Kiran A, Conrad N, Callender T, et al. Blood pressure and risk of vascular dementia: evidence from a primary care registry and a cohort study of transient ischemic attack and stroke. Stroke. 2016;47(6):1429–35. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.116.012658.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Pasqualetti G, Thayanandan T, Edison P. Influence of genetic and cardiometabolic risk factors in alzheimer’s disease. Ageing res rev. 2022;81: 101723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2022.101723.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Tini G, Scagliola R, Monacelli F, La Malfa G, Porto I, Brunelli C, et al. Alzheimer’s disease and cardiovascular disease: a particular association. Cardiol res pract. 2020;2020:2617970. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2617970.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Quiñones AR, Botoseneanu A, Markwardt S, Nagel CL, Newsom JT, Dorr DA, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in multimorbidity development and chronic disease accumulation for middle-aged adults. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(6):e0218462. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218462.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Lin SX, Carnethon M, Szklo M, Bertoni A. Racial/ethnic differences in the association of triglycerides with other metabolic syndrome components: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Metab syndr relat disord. 2011;9(1):35–40. https://doi.org/10.1089/met.2010.0050.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Dove A, Marseglia A, Shang Y, Grande G, Vetrano DL, Laukka EJ, et al. Cardiometabolic multimorbidity accelerates cognitive decline and dementia progression. Alzheimers dement. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12708.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Tai XY, Veldsman M, Lyall DM, Littlejohns TJ, Langa KM, Husain M, et al. Cardiometabolic multimorbidity, genetic risk, and dementia: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Healthy Longev. 2022;3(6):e428–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-7568(22)00117-9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Aiken Morgan AT, Sims RC, Whitfield KE. Cardiovascular health and education as sources of individual variability in cognitive aging among African Americans. J Aging Health. 2010;22(4):477–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264310361627.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. •• Byrd DR, Thorpe RJ Jr, Whitfield KE. Greater disease burden, greater risk? Exploring cognitive change and health status among older Blacks. J Aging Health. 2020;32(7–8):807–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264319853138. (Large prospective study of 602 Black Americans, who were intereviewed at two time points, approximately 3 years apart. Results suggest that having two or more health conditions (i.e., multi-morbidity) is linked to significant declines in processing speed over time in Blacks. Notably, multi-morbidity is more common in Blacks than Whites.)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Carmasin JS, Mast BT, Allaire JC, Whitfield KE. Vascular risk factors, depression, and cognitive change among African American older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2014;29(3):291–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Akushevich I, Kolpakov S, Yashkin AP, Kravchenko J. Vulnerability to hypertension is a major determinant of racial disparities in Alzheimer’s disease risk. Am J Hypertens. 2022;35(8):745–51. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpac063.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Zahodne LB, Manly JJ, Smith J, Seeman T, Lachman ME. Socioeconomic, health, and psychosocial mediators of racial disparities in cognition in early, middle, and late adulthood. Psychol aging. 2017;32(2):118–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000154.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Holmes C. Review: Systemic inflammation and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2013;39(1):51–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2990.2012.01307.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Dove A, Shang Y, Xu W, Grande G, Laukka EJ, Fratiglioni L, et al. The impact of diabetes on cognitive impairment and its progression to dementia. Alzheimers dement. 2021;17(11):1769–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Laurin D, David Curb J, Masaki KH, White LR, Launer LJ. Midlife c-reactive protein and risk of cognitive decline: a 31-year follow-up. Neurobiol Aging. 2009;30(11):1724–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.01.008.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Singh-Manoux A, Dugravot A, Brunner E, Kumari M, Shipley M, Elbaz A, et al. Interleukin-6 and c-reactive protein as predictors of cognitive decline in late midlife. Neurology. 2014;83(6):486–93. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000665.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Metti AL, Yaffe K, Boudreau RM, Simonsick EM, Carnahan RM, Satterfield S, et al. Trajectories of inflammatory markers and cognitive decline over 10 years. Neurobiol Aging. 2014;35(12):2785–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.05.030.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Yaffe K, Lindquist K, Penninx BW, Simonsick EM, Pahor M, Kritchevsky S, et al. Inflammatory markers and cognition in well-functioning African-American and White elders. Neurology. 2003;61(1):76–80. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000073620.42047.d7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Heringa SM, van den Berg E, Reijmer YD, Nijpels G, Stehouwer CD, Schalkwijk CG, et al. Markers of low-grade inflammation and endothelial dysfunction are related to reduced information processing speed and executive functioning in an older population - the hoorn study. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2014;40:108–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.11.011.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Alley DE, Crimmins EM, Karlamangla A, Hu P, Seeman TE. Inflammation and rate of cognitive change in high-functioning older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;63(1):50–5. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/63.1.50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Sundelof J, Kilander L, Helmersson J, Larsson A, Ronnemaa E, Degerman-Gunnarsson M, et al. Systemic inflammation and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia: a prospective population-based study. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2009;18(1):79–87. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2009-1126.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Walker KA, Gottesman RF, Wu A, Knopman DS, Gross AL, Mosley TH Jr, et al. Systemic inflammation during midlife and cognitive change over 20 years: the ARIC study. Neurology. 2019;92(11):e1256–67. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000007094.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Chen C, Zissimopoulos JM. Racial and ethnic differences in trends in dementia prevalence and risk factors in the United States. Alzheimers dement (N Y). 2018;4:510–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trci.2018.08.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. González HM, Tarraf W, Harrison K, Windham BG, Tingle J, Alonso A, et al. Midlife cardiovascular health and 20-year cognitive decline: atherosclerosis risk in communities study results. Alzheimers dement. 2018;14(5):579–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2017.11.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Kamara DM, Gangishetti U, Gearing M, Willis-Parker M, Zhao L, Hu WT, et al. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: similarity in African-Americans and Caucasians with Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimer’s Dis. 2018;62(4):1815–26. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-170954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Lim U, Wang S, Park SY, Bogumil D, Wu AH, Cheng I, et al. Risk of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia by sex and race/ethnicity: the multiethnic cohort study. Alzheimers dement. 2022;18(9):1625–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12528.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Hajjar I, Rosenberger KJ, Kulshreshtha A, Ayonayon HN, Yaffe K, Goldstein FC. Association of jnc-8 and sprint systolic blood pressure levels with cognitive function and related racial disparity. JAMA Neurol. 2017;74(10):1199–205. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2017.1863.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Levine DA, Galecki AT, Langa KM, Unverzagt FW, Kabeto MU, Giordani B, et al. Blood pressure and cognitive decline over 8 years in middle-aged and older Black and White Americans. Hypertension. 2019;73(2):310–8. https://doi.org/10.1161/hypertensionaha.118.12062.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Whitfield KE, Allaire JC, Gamaldo A, Aiken-Morgan AT, Sims R, Edwards C. Blood pressure and memory in older African Americans. Ethn Dis. 2008;18(2):181–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. White BM, Rochell JK, Warren JR. Promoting cardiovascular health for African American women: an integrative review of interventions. J Womens Health. 2020;29(7):952–70. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2018.7580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Wadi NM, Asantewa-Ampaduh S, Rivas C, Goff LM. Culturally tailored lifestyle interventions for the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes in adults of Black African ancestry: a systematic review of tailoring methods and their effectiveness. Public health nutr. 2022;25(2):422–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Osei-Assibey G, Boachie C. Dietary interventions for weight loss and cardiovascular risk reduction in people of African ancestry (Blacks): a systematic review. Public health nutr. 2012;15(1):110–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This work was supported by a grant to DRB from the National Institute on Aging (1 K01 AG068376-01A1) and the Alzheimer’s Association (AARFD-21–852652). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the Alzheimer’s Association.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Edson College of Nursing and Health Innovation, Arizona State University, Health North, Suite 301, 550 N 3rd Street, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA

    DeAnnah R. Byrd, Danielle A. Martin & Rodney P. Joseph

  2. Center for Innovation in Healthy and Resilient Aging, Edson College of Nursing and Health Innovation, Arizona State University, 500 N 3rd St., Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA

    DeAnnah R. Byrd

  3. Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Edson College of Nursing and Health Innovation, Arizona State University, 500 N 3rd St., Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA

    Rodney P. Joseph

Authors
  1. DeAnnah R. Byrd
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Danielle A. Martin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rodney P. Joseph
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to DeAnnah R. Byrd.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

DeAnnah R. Byrd reports grants from NIH and the Alzheimer’s Association outside the submitted work. Danielle A. Martin and Rodney P. Joseph declare no conflict of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This article is part of the Topical Collection on Epidemiology of Aging.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Byrd, D.R., Martin, D.A. & Joseph, R.P. Environmental, Sociocultural, Behavioral, and Biological Factors Associated with Cognitive Decline, Alzheimer’s Disease, and Other Types of Dementia in Black Americans. Curr Epidemiol Rep 10, 252–263 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-023-00337-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40471-023-00337-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation