Abstract
Lipid accumulation is critical in the production of biodiesel from microalgae. However, little work has been done on the assessment of lipid accumulation during nitrogen stress in large research-scale outdoor raceways during different seasons; most values for lipid accumulation are assumptions based on work completed in laboratory settings or outdoor photobioreactors. This study focused on the use of raceway ponds operated in batch cultivation mode with an area of 30.37 m2 to determine the impacts of nitrate-nitrogen concentration and cultivation depth on the ability of Scenedesmus acutus strain LB 0414 to accumulate lipids. A concentration of less than 60 mg N-NO3 − L−1 was required for removal of nitrogen in the cultivation medium within 8 days to stimulate lipid accumulation and increase lipid productivity. When nitrate concentrations were increased to prevent nitrogen depletion, lipid productivity decreased, which demonstrates that stressing is needed to induce lipid accumulation for increased lipid productivity. Additionally, decreasing cultivation depth below 9 cm, compared to raceways operated at a depth of 20–24 cm, increased lipid productivity by 62 % in December 2014 and 38 % in February 2015. More desirable environmental conditions, mainly increased sunlight and temperature, in February, increased biodiesel productivity for all raceways and account for the decrease in productivity differences. This research highlights increased lipid productivity found by reducing cultivation depth and nitrogen concentrations in outdoor raceways and provides insight into the optimal conditions for large-scale biodiesel production.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Béchet Q, Shilton A, Park JBK, Craggs RJ, Guieysse B (2011) Universal temperature model for shallow algal ponds provides improved accuracy. Environ Sci Technol 45:3702–3709
Breuer G, Lamers PP, Martens DE, Draaisma RB, Wijffels RH (2012) The impact of nitrogen starvation on the dynamics of triacylglycerol accumulation in nine microalgae strains. Bioresour Technol 124:217–226
Chiaramonti D, Prussi M, Casini D, Tredici MR, Rodolfi L, Bassi N, Zittelli GC, Bondioli P (2013) Review of energy balance in raceway ponds for microalgae cultivation: re-thinking a traditional system is possible. Appl Energy 102:101–111
Crowe B, Attalah S, Agrawal S, Waller P, Ryan R, Van Wagenen J, Chavis A, Kyndt J, Kacira M, Ogden KL, Huesemann M (2012) A comparison of Nannochloropsis salina growth performance in two outdoor pond designs: conventional raceways versus the ARID pond with superior temperature management. Int J Chem Eng 2012:9
Doucha J, Lívanský K (2009) Outdoor open thin-layer microalgal photobioreactor: potential productivity. J Appl Phycol 21:111–117
Doucha J, Lívanský K (2014) High density outdoor microalgal culture. In: Bajpai R, Prokop A, Zappi M (eds) Algal biorefineries. Springer, Netherlands, pp 147–173
Eustance E (2015) Assessing outdoor algal cultivation in panel and raceway photobioreactors for biomass and lipid productivity. Dissertation, Arizona State University
Eustance E, Gardner RD, Moll KM, Menicucci J, Gerlach R, Peyton BM (2013) Growth, nitrogen utilization and biodiesel potential for two chlorophytes grown on ammonium, nitrate or urea. J Appl Phycol 25:1663–1677
Eustance E, Wray JT, Badvipour S, Sommerfeld MR (2015a) The effects of limiting nighttime aeration on productivity and lipid accumulation in Scenedesmus dimorphous. Algal Res 10:33–40
Eustance E, Badvipour S, Wray JT, Sommerfeld MR (2015b) Biomass productivity of two Scenedesmus strains cultivated semi-continuously in 3 outdoor raceway ponds and flat-panel photobioreactors. J Appl Phycol 25:1663–1677
Gardner R, Peters P, Peyton B, Cooksey K (2011) Medium pH and nitrate concentration effects on accumulation of triacylglycerol in two members of the Chlorophyta. J Appl Phycol 23:1005–1016
Gardner R, Cooksey K, Mus F, Macur R, Moll K, Eustance E, Carlson R, Gerlach R, Fields M, Peyton B (2012) Use of sodium bicarbonate to stimulate triacylglycerol accumulation in the chlorophyte Scenedesmus sp. and the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. J Appl Phycol 24:1311–1320
Gardner RD, Lohman E, Gerlach R, Cooksey KE, Peyton BM (2013) Comparison of CO2 and bicarbonate as inorganic carbon sources for triacylglycerol and starch accumulation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Biotechnol Bioeng 110:87–96
Griffiths MJ, Harrison STL (2009) Lipid productivity as a key characteristic for choosing algal species for biodiesel production. J Appl Phycol 21:493–507
Grobbelaar JU (2013) Mass production of microalgae at optimal photosynthetic rates. In: Dubinsky Z (ed) Photosynthesis. InTech, pp 357–371. doi:10.5772/55193
Grobbelaar JU, Nedbal L, Tichy L, Setlik L (1995) Variation in some photosynthetic characteristics of microalgae cultured in outdoor thin-layered sloping reactors. J Appl Phycol 7:175–184
Guterman H, Vonshak A, Ben-Yaakov S (1990) A macromodel for outdoor algal mass production. Biotechnol Bioeng 35:809–819
Hartig P, Grobbelaar JU, Soeder CJ, Groeneweg J (1988) On the mass-culture of microalgae - areal density as an important factor for achieving maximal productivity. Biomass 15:211–221
Hu Q, Kurano N, Kawachi M, Iwasaki I, Miyachi S (1998) Ultrahigh-cell-density culture of a marine green alga Chlorococcum littorale in a flat-plate photobioreactor. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 49:655–662
Johnson X, Alric J (2013) Central carbon metabolism and electron transport in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: metabolic constraints for carbon partitioning between oil and starch. Eukaryot Cell 12:776–793
Lourenco SO, Barbarino E, Mancini-Filho J, Schinke KP, Aidar E (2002) Effects of different nitrogen sources on the growth and biochemical profile of 10 marine microalgae in batch culture: an evaluation for aquaculture. Phycologia 41:158–168
Moheimani NR, Borowitzka MA (2006) The long-term culture of the coccolithophore Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyta) in outdoor raceway ponds. J Appl Phycol 18:703–712
Moheimani NR, Borowitzka MA (2007) Limits to productivity of the alga Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyta) grown in outdoor raceway ponds. Biotechnol Bioeng 96:27–36
Moll KM, Gardner RD, Eustance EO, Gerlach R, Peyton BM (2014) Combining multiple nutrient stresses and bicarbonate addition to promote lipid accumulation in the diatom RGd-1. Algal Res 5:7–15
Oswald WJ (1988) Large-scale algal culture systems (engineering aspects). In: Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ (eds) Micro-algal biotechnology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 357–394
Přibyl P, Cepák V, Zachleder V (2012) Production of lipids in 10 strains of Chlorella and Parachlorella and enhanced lipid productivity in Chlorella vulgaris. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 94:549–561
Ras M, Steyer J-P, Bernard O (2013) Temperature effect on microalgae: a crucial factor for outdoor production. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 12(2):153–164
Richmond A, Cheng-Wu Z (2001) Optimization of a flat plate glass reactor for mass production of Nannochloropsis sp. outdoors. J Biotechnol 85:259–269
Rodolfi L, Zittelli GC, Bassi N, Padovani G, Biondi N, Bonini G, Tredici MR (2009) Microalgae for oil: strain selection, induction of lipid synthesis and outdoor mass cultivation in a low-cost photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 102:100–112
Shurin JB, Abbott RL, Deal MS, Kwan GT, Litchman E, McBride RC, Mandal S, Smith VH (2013) Industrial-strength ecology: trade-offs and opportunities in algal biofuel production. Ecol Lett 16:1393–1404
Stephenson AL, Dennis JS, Howe CJ, Scott SA, Smith AG (2010) Influence of nitrogen-limitation regime on the production by Chlorella vulgaris of lipids for biodiesel feedstocks. Biofuels 1:47–58
Van Wychen S, Laurens LML. NREL (2013) Determination of total carbohydrates in algal biomass. Report Number: NREL/TP-5100-60957
Van Wychen S, Laurens LML. NREL (2013) Determination of total lipids as fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) by in situ transesterification. Report Number: NREL/TP-5100-60958
Vonshak A, Torzillo G, Masojidek J, Boussiba S (2001) Sub-optimal morning temperature induces photoinhibition in dense outdoor cultures of the alga Monodus subterraneus (Eustigmatophyta). Plant Cell Environ 24:1113–1118
Waller P, Ryan R, Kacira M, Li P (2012) The algae raceway integrated design for optimal temperature management. Biomass Bioenergy 46:702–709
Yamaberi K, Takagi M, Yoshida T (1998) Nitrogen depletion for intracellular triglyceride accumulation to enhance liquefaction yield of marine microalgal cells into a fuel oil. J Mar Biotechnol 6:44–48
Zemke P, Sommerfeld M, Hu Q (2013) Assessment of key biological and engineering design parameters for production of Chlorella zofingiensis (Chlorophyceae) in outdoor photobioreactors. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97:5645–5655
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the Laboratory for Algae Research and Biotechnology and the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation staff for their intellectual, technical, and equipment support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Eustance, E., Wray, J.T., Badvipour, S. et al. The effects of cultivation depth, areal density, and nutrient level on lipid accumulation of Scenedesmus acutus in outdoor raceway ponds. J Appl Phycol 28, 1459–1469 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-015-0709-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-015-0709-z