Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Morphological properties and mechanical performance of polylactic acid scaffolds fabricated by a novel fused filament fabrication/gas foaming coupled method

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Scaffolds are three-dimensional porous structures that play an indispensable role in tissue engineering applications and can be fabricated by different techniques as tissue engineering scaffolds. In the present research work, the morphological properties and mechanical performance of polylactic acid (PLA) scaffolds fabricated by a novel combined approach of fused filament fabrication (FFF) and batch foaming were comprehensively assessed. FFF allowed us to design and precisely regulate macro-pores (external porosity) larger than 100 µm by tailoring infill percentage. The batch foaming process was utilized to create nano-pores (internal porosity) in FFF scaffolds and micro-pores in injection molded samples. The expansion ratio of injection molded and FFF solid samples was significantly improved using the batch foaming process. A pore structure in bimodal type consisting of large and small pores was formed in injection molded foamed scaffolds. The diameter of large pores was higher than 10 µm and for small pores, it was measured to be between 3 and 10 µm. These bimodal structures provided an interesting combined brittle and ductile fracture mechanism in injection molded foamed scaffolds revealed by the Charpy impact test. However, pore sizes of FFF foamed scaffolds were in the nano-meter range, presenting ductile fracture mechanism with pore-boundary fracture mode. This mechanism enhanced significantly the impact strength of FFF foamed scaffolds, up to 72% (from 118.2 to 202.8 J/m2) in FFF samples with an infill percentage of 60%.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

Availability of data and material

Not applicable.

Code availability

Not applicable.

References

  1. Mabrouk M, Beherei HH, Das DB (2020) Recent progress in the fabrication techniques of 3D scaffolds for tissue engineering. Mater Sci Eng C 110:110716

  2. Beheshtizadeh N, Lotfibakhshaiesh N, Pazhouhnia Z, Hoseinpour M, Nafari M (2020) A review of 3D bio-printing for bone and skin tissue engineering: a commercial approach. J Mater Sci 55(9):3729–3749

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Pires LSO, Fernandes MHFV, de Oliveira JMM (2018) Biofabrication of glass scaffolds by 3D printing for tissue engineering. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 98(9):2665–2676

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Kim D, Lee J, Kim G (2020) Biomimetic gelatin/HA biocomposites with effective elastic properties and 3D-structural flexibility using a 3D-printing process. Addit Manuf 36:101616

  5. Sordi MB, Cruz A, Fredel MC, Magini R, Sharpe PT (2021) Three-dimensional bioactive hydrogel-based scaffolds for bone regeneration in implant dentistry. Mater Sci Eng C 124:112055

  6. Zhou X, Feng Y, Zhang J, Shi Y, Wang L (2020) Recent advances in additive manufacturing technology for bone tissue engineering scaffolds. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 108(11):3591–3606

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Zhou C, Yang K, Wang K, Pei X, Dong Z, Hong Y, Zhang X (2016) Combination of fused deposition modeling and gas foaming technique to fabricated hierarchical macro/microporous polymer scaffolds. Mater Des 109:415–424

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Kantaros A, Chatzidai N, Karalekas D (2016) 3D printing-assisted design of scaffold structures. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 82(1–4):559–571

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Yıldırım S, Demirtaş TT, Dinçer CA, Yıldız N, Karakeçili A (2018) Preparation of polycaprolactone/graphene oxide scaffolds: a green route combining supercritial CO2 technology and porogen leaching. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 133:156–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Alizadeh M, Abbasi F, Khoshfetrat AB, Ghaleh H (2013) Microstructure and characteristic properties of gelatin/chitosan scaffold prepared by a combined freeze-drying/leaching method. Mater Sci Eng, C 33(7):3958–3967

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Zhou Y, Hu Z, Du D, Tan GZ (2019) The effects of collector geometry on the internal structure of the 3D nanofiber scaffold fabricated by divergent electrospinning. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 100(9):3045–3054

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Molladavoodi S, Gorbet M, Medley J, Kwon HJ (2013) Investigation of microstructure, mechanical properties and cellular viability of poly (L-lactic acid) tissue engineering scaffolds prepared by different thermally induced phase separation protocols. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 17:186–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Liu Z, Wang Y, Wu B, Cui C, Guo Y, Yan C (2019) A critical review of fused deposition modeling 3D printing technology in manufacturing polylactic acid parts. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 102(9):2877–2889

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Wang L, Wang D, Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Li Q, Shen C (2019) Fabrication of open-porous PCL/PLA tissue engineering scaffolds and the relationship of foaming process, morphology, and mechanical behavior. Polym Adv Technol 30(10):2539–2548

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Li M, Jiang J, Hu B, Zhai W (2020) Fused deposition modeling of hierarchical porous polyetherimide assisted by an in-situ CO2 foaming technology. Combust Sci Technol 200:108454

  16. Zhao P, Gu H, Mi H, Rao C, Fu J, Turng LS (2018) Fabrication of scaffolds in tissue engineering: a review. Front Mech Eng 13(1):107–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Mihankhah P, Azdast T, Mohammadzadeh H, Hasanzadeh R, Aghaiee S, (2021) Fused filament fabrication of biodegradable polylactic acid reinforced by nanoclay as a potential biomedical material. J Thermoplast Compos Mater. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F08927057211044185

  18. Zhang H, Huang T, Jiang Q, He L, Bismarck A, Hu Q (2021) Recent progress of 3D printed continuous fiber reinforced polymer composites based on fused deposition modeling: a review. J Mater Sci 1–24

  19. Pu’ad NM, Haq RA, Noh HM, Abdullah HZ, Idris MI, Lee TC (2020) Review on the fabrication of fused deposition modelling (FDM) composite filament for biomedical applications. Materials Today: Proceedings 29:228–232

    Google Scholar 

  20. Hasanzadeh R, Azdast T, Doniavi A, Rostami M (2019) A prediction model using response surface methodology based on cell size and foam density to predict thermal conductivity of polystyrene foams. Heat Mass Transf 55(10):2845–2855

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Azdast T, Lee RE, Hasanzadeh R, Moradian M, Shishavan SM (2019) Investigation of mechanical and morphological properties of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene nanocomposite foams from analytical hierarchy process point of view. Polym Bull 76(5):2579–2599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Dave HK, Rajpurohit SR, Patadiya NH, Dave SJ, Sharma KS, Thambad SS, Srinivasn VP, Sheth KV (2019) Compressive strength of PLA based scaffolds: effect of layer height, infill density and print speed. International Journal of Modern Manufacturing Technologies 11(1):21–27

    Google Scholar 

  23. Lee J, Lee H, Cheon KH, Park C, Jang TS, Kim HE, Jung HD, (2019) Fabrication of poly (lactic acid)/Ti composite scaffolds with enhanced mechanical properties and biocompatibility via fused filament fabrication (FFF)–based 3D printing. Addit Manuf 30:100883

  24. Zhao H, Li L, Ding S, Liu C, Ai J (2018) Effect of porous structure and pore size on mechanical strength of 3D-printed comby scaffolds. Mater Lett 223:21–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Khodaei M, Amini K, Valanezhad A, (2020) Fabrication and characterization of poly lactic acid scaffolds by fused deposition modeling for bone tissue engineering. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Mater. Sci. Ed., 35(1):248–251

  26. Hamandi FMRA (2020) Hierarchical structure, properties and bone mechanics at macro, micro, and nano levels, Ph.D. Thesis, Wright State University

  27. Lee S, Porter M, Wasko S, Lau G, Chen PY, Novitskaya EE, Tomsia AP, Almutairi A, Meyers MA, McKittrick J (2012) Potential bone replacement materials prepared by two methods. MRS Online Proceedings Library (OPL) 1418:177–188

    Google Scholar 

  28. Cooper DML, Kawalilak CE, Harrison K, Johnston BD, Johnston JD (2016) Cortical bone porosity: what is it, why is it important, and how can we detect it? Curr Osteoporos Rep 14(5):187–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Jie W, Dongqin X, Jinyu L, Wei Z, Yandong M (2016) Modulation of macro-, micro-and nano-structures of porous bioceramic scaffolds for regenerative bone tissue. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/conf.fbioe.2016.01.01261

  30. Song P, Zhou C, Fan H, Zhang B, Pei X, Fan Y, Jiang Q, Bao R, Yang Q, Dong Z, Zhang X (2018) Novel 3D porous biocomposite scaffolds fabricated by fused deposition modeling and gas foaming combined technology. Compos B Eng 152:151–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Azdast T, Hasanzadeh R (2021) Polylactide scaffold fabrication using a novel combination technique of fused deposition modeling and batch foaming: dimensional accuracy and structural properties. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 114(5):1309–1321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Hasanzadeh R, Azdast T, Doniavi A, Lee RE (2019) Thermal conductivity of low density polyethylene foams part I: comprehensive study of theoretical models. J Therm Sci 28(4):745–754

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Mastikhina O, Moon BU, Williams K, Hatkar R, Gustafson D, Mourad O, Sun X, Koo M, Lam AY, Sun Y, Fish JE (2020) Human cardiac fibrosis-on-a-chip model recapitulates disease hallmarks and can serve as a platform for drug testing. Biomaterials 233:119741

  34. Lee RE, Azdast T, Wang G, Wang X, Lee PC, Park CB (2020) Highly expanded fine-cell foam of polylactide/polyhydroxyalkanoate/nano-fibrillated polytetrafluoroethylene composites blown with mold-opening injection molding. Int J Biol Macromol 155:286–292

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Zhao J, Wang G, Wang C, Park CB (2020) Ultra-lightweight, super thermal-insulation and strong PP/CNT microcellular foams. Combust Sci Technol 191:108084

  36. Azdast T, Hasanzadeh R (2021) Increasing cell density/decreasing cell size to produce microcellular and nanocellular thermoplastic foams: a review. J Cell Plast 57(5):769–797

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Hasanzadeh R, Azdast T, Doniavi A, Lee RE (2019) Multi-objective optimization of heat transfer mechanisms of microcellular polymeric foams from thermal-insulation point of view. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 9:21–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Hasanzadeh R, Azdast T, Doniavi A (2020) Thermal conductivity of low-density polyethylene foams part II: deep investigation using response surface methodology. J Therm Sci 29(1):159–168

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Bao JB, Junior AN, Weng GS, Wang J, Fang YW, Hu GH (2016) Tensile and impact properties of microcellular isotactic polypropylene (PP) foams obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids 111:63–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Mills NJ, Kang P (1994) The effect of water immersion on the mechanical properties of polystyrene bead foam used in soft shell cycle helmets. J Cell Plast 30(3):196–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran

    Asghar Rasouli, Taher Azdast, Peyman Mihankhah & Rezgar Hasanzadeh

  2. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran

    Hurieh Mohammadzadeh

Authors
  1. Asghar Rasouli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Taher Azdast
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Hurieh Mohammadzadeh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peyman Mihankhah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Rezgar Hasanzadeh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Mr. Asghar Rasouli: methodology, software, formal analysis, writing—original draft. Prof. Taher Azdast: conceptualization, methodology, validation, investigation, writing—review and editing, supervision. Dr. Hurieh Mohammadzadeh: writing—review and editing. Mr. Peyman Mihankhah: methodology, software, formal analysis, writing—original draft. Dr. Rezgar Hasanzadeh: conceptualization, methodology, validation, investigation, writing—review and editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Taher Azdast.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval

This manuscript is not a life science study and does not report the results of studies involving humans and/or animals.

Consent to participate

This manuscript is not a life science study and does not report the results of studies involving humans and/or animals.

Consent for publication

This manuscript is not a life science study and does not report the results of studies involving humans and/or animals.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rasouli, A., Azdast, T., Mohammadzadeh, H. et al. Morphological properties and mechanical performance of polylactic acid scaffolds fabricated by a novel fused filament fabrication/gas foaming coupled method. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 119, 7463–7474 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-08743-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-08743-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation