Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Temperature Effects on the Crystallinity of Synthetic Nontronite and Implications for Nontronite Formation in Columbia River Basalts

  • Published:
Clays and Clay Minerals

Abstract

The formation conditions of the ferric smectite nontronite are not fully understood. The present study couples experimental and analytical data with field observations in an attempt to constrain the rate and temperature of formation of naturally occurring nontronites from Columbia River Basalt flows. Synthetic Fe-Al-Si gels were incubated at temperatures ranging from 4 to 150°C for 4 weeks. Samples were analyzed using Fe K-edge X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XAFS). Spectra of the synthesized nontronites were compared with spectra of natural samples collected from weathered Columbia River Basalt flows. Cation ordering in the synthetic samples increased with incubation temperature, but the synthetic clays did not approach the degree of crystal ordering of the natural nontronite samples. These observations suggest that highly ordered natural nontronites require longer crystallization times than are typically used in laboratory experiments. The natural samples were found filling open cracks near flow surfaces, indicating that the clays formed at temperatures below the boiling point of water. A comparison of experimental and field timescales with other estimates of nontronite growth rates suggests that natural nontronite crystallization in the region must have occurred at ambient, near-surface temperatures over timescales of up to millions of years.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen, V.T. and Scheid, V.E. (1946) Nontronite in the Columbia River region. American Mineralogist, 31, 294–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, L.L. and Strawn, D.G. (2012) Fe K-edge XAFS spectra of phyllosilicates of varying crystallinity. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals 39, 675–684.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, L.L., Strawn, D.G., Vaughan, K.L., and McDaniel, P.A. (2010) XAS study of Fe mineralogy in a chronosequence of soil clays formed in basaltic cinders. Clays and Clay Minerals 58, 6, 772–782.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, L., Strawn, D., McDaniel, P., Fairley, J., and Bishop, J. (2012) Hydrologic and geochemical controls on nontronite formation in terrestrial Columbia River Basalts and implications for clay formation on Mars. LPI Contributions 1680, 7011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, L.V. and Teague, L.S. (1982) Diagenesis of basalts from the Pasco Basin, Washington: I. Distribution and composition of secondary mineral phases. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 52, 595–613.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, J.L., Dobrea, E.Z.N., McKeown, N.K., Parente, M., Ehlmann, B.L., Michalski, J.R., Milliken, R.E., Poulet, F., Swayze, G.A., Mustard, J.F., Murchie, S.L., and Bibring, J.-P. (2008) Phyllosilicate diversity and past aqueous activity revealed at Mawrth Vallis, Mars. Science, 321, 830–833.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, L.X., Liu, T., Thurnauer, M.C., Csencsits, R., and Rajh, T. (2002) Fe2O3 nanoparticle structures investigated by X-ray absorption near-edge structure, surface modifications, and model calculations. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 106, 34, 8539–8546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, T. and Shaw, H. (1983) The nature and origin of authigenic smectites in some recent marine sediments. Clay Minerals 18, 3, 239–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Day, T.A. and Wright, R.G. (1989) Positive plant spatial association with Eriogonum ovalifolium in primary succession on cinder cones: seed-trapping nurse plants. Plant Ecology, 80, 37–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Decarreau, A. and Bonnin, D. (1986) Synthesis and crystallogenesis at low temperature of Fe (III)-smectites by evolution of coprecipitated gels: experiments in partially reducing conditions. Clay Minerals, 21, 861–877.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Decarreau, A., Bonnin, D., Badaut-Trauth, D., Couty, R., and Kaiser, P. (1987) Synthesis and crystallogenesis of ferric smectite by evolution of Si-Fe coprecipitates in oxidizing conditions. Clay Minerals, 22, 207–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Decarreau, A., Petit, S., Martin, F., Farges, F., Vieillard, P., and Joussein, E. (2008) Hydrothermal synthesis, between 75 and 150°C, of high-charge, ferric nontronites. Clays and Clay Minerals 56, 322–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dekov, V.M., Kamenov, G.D., Stummeyer, J., Thiry, M., Savelli, C., Shanks, W.C., Fortin, D., Kuzmann, E., and Vértes, A. (2007) Hydrothermal nontronite formation at Eolo seamount (Aeolian volcanic arc, Tyrrhenian Sea). Chemical Geology, 245, 103–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eggleton, R. (1977) Nontronite: Chemistry and diffraction. Clay Minerals, 12, 181–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlmann, B.L., Mustard, J.F., Murchie, S.L., Bibring, J.-P., Meunier, A., Fraeman, A.A., and Langevin, Y. (2011) Subsurface water and clay mineral formation during the early history of Mars. Nature, 479, 7371, 53–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer, V., Krishnamurti, G., and Huang, P. (1991) Synthetic allophane and layer-silicate formation in SiO2-Al2O3-FeOFe2O3-MgO-H2O systems at 23°C and 89°C in a calcareous environment. Clays and Clay Minerals, 39, 561–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer, V., McHardy, W., Elsass, F., and Robert, M. (1994) hk-ordering in aluminous nontronite and saponite synthesized near 90°C: Effects of synthesis conditions on nontronite composition and ordering. Clays and Clay Minerals, 42, 180–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fialips, C.-I., Huo, D., Yan, L., Wu, J., and Stucki, J.W. (2002) Effect of Fe oxidation state on the IR spectra of Garfield nontronite. American Mineralogist, 87, 630–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R.L., Kloprogge, J.T., and Ding, Z. (2002) The Garfield and Uley nontronites - an infrared spectroscopic comparison. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 58, 9, 1881–1894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, W.P. (2005) Infrared spectroscopy and the chemistry of dioctahedral smectites. Pp. 125–168 in: Vibrational Spectroscopy of Layer Silicates and Hydroxides (T. Kloprogge, editor). The Clay Minerals Society, Aurora, CO, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gates, W.P. (2008) Cation mass-valence sum (CM-VS) approach to assigning OH-bending bands in dioctahedral smectite. Clays and Clay Minerals, 56, 10–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, W.P., Slade, P.G., Manceau, A., and Lanson, B. (2002) Site occupancies by iron in nontronites. Clays and Clay Minerals, 50, 223–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harder, H. (1976) Nontronite synthesis at low temperatures. Chemical Geology, 18, 169–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harder, H. (1978) Synthesis of iron layer silicate minerals under natural conditions. Clays and Clay Minerals, 26, 65–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jakobsson, S.P. and Moore, J.G. (1986) Hydrothermal minerals and alteration rates at Surtsey volcano, Iceland. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 97, 648–659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keeling, J.L., Raven, M.D., and Gates, W.P. (2000) Geology and characterization of two hydrothermal nontronites from weathered metamorphic rocks at the Uley graphite mine, South Australia. Clays and Clay Minerals, 48, 5, 537–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, P.F. and Kulp, J.L. (1949) Reference clay localities, United States. Pp. 69–73 in: Reference Clay Minerals; American Petroleum Institute Research Project 49, Preliminary Reports no. 1–8 (P.F. Kerr and J.L. Kulp, editors). Columbia University, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Köhler, B., Singer, A., and Stoffers, P. (1994) Biogenic nontronite from marine white smoker chimneys. Clays and Clay Minerals, 42, 689–701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Long, P.E. and Wood, B.J. (1986) Structures, textures, and cooling histories of Columbia River basalt flows. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 97, 1144–1155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lore, J., Gao, H., and Aydin, A. (2000) Viscoelastic thermal stress in cooling basalt flows. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth (1978–2012), 105, B10, 23695–23709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manceau, A., Bonnin, D., Stone, W.E.E., and Sanz, J. (1990) Distribution of Fe in the octahedral sheet of trioctahedral micas by polarized EXAFS; comparison with NMR results. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 17, 363–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manceau, A., Chateigner, D., and Gates, W.P. (1998) Polarized EXAFS, distance-valence least-squares modeling (DVLS), and quantitative texture analysis approaches to the structural refinement of Garfield nontronite. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 25, 347–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meunier, A., Mas, A., Beaufort, D., Patrier, P., and Dudoignon, P. (2008) Clay minerals in basalt-hawaiite rocks from Mururoa atoll (French Polynesia). II. Petrography and geochemistry. Clays and Clay Minerals, 56, 730–750.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meunier, A., Petit, S., Ehlmann, B.L., Dudoignon, P., Westall, F., Mas, A., El Albani, A., and Ferrage, E. (2012) Magmatic precipitation as a possible origin of Noachian clays on Mars. Nature Geoscience, 5, 739–743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montarges-Pelletier, E., Bogenez, S., Pelletier, M., Razafitianamaharavo, A., Ghanbaja, J., Lartiges, B., and Michot, L. (2005) Synthetic allophane-like particles: textural properties. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 255, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, A., Petit, S., and Hofstetter, T.B. (2011) Evaluation of redox-active iron sites in smectites using middle and near infrared spectroscopy. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 75, 2336–2355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Day, P.A., Rehr, J.J., Zabinsky, S.I., and Brown, G.E., Jr. (1994) Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis of disorder and multiple-scattering in complex crystalline solids. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 116, 2938–2949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ravel, B. and Newville, M. (2005) ATHENA, ARTEMIS, HEPHAESTUS: data analysis for X-ray absorption spectroscopy using IFEFFIT. Journal of Synchrotron Radiation, 12, 537–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reidel, S.P. (1998) Emplacement of Columbia River flood basalt. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth (1978–2012), 103, 27393–27410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reidel, S.P., Camp, V.E., Tolan, T.L., and Martin, B.S. (2013) The Columbia River flood basalt province: Stratigraphy, areal extent, volume, and physical volcanology. Geological Society of America Special Papers, 497, 1–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J.D. and Fraser, A.R. (1994) Infrared Methods. Pp. 11–67 in: Clay Mineralogy: Spectroscopic and Chemical Determinative Methods (M.J. Wilson, editor). Chapman & Hall, London.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Scheidegger, A.M., Lamble, G.M., and Sparks, D.L. (1996) Investigation of Ni sorption on pyrophyllite: An XAFS study. Environmental Science & Technology, 30, 548–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Severmann, S., Mills, R.A., Palmer, M.R., and Fallick, A.E. (2004) The origin of clay minerals in active and relict hydrothermal deposits. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 68, 73–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shoji, S., Nanzyo, M., and Dahlgren, R. (1993) Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilization. Elsevier, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroncik, N.A. and Schmincke, H.U. (2002) Palagonite — a review. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 91, 680–697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Summers, K. (1976) The clay component of the Columbia River palagonites. American Mineralogist, 61, 492–494.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, D.A., Wright, T.L., Hooper, P.R., and Bentley, R.D. (1979) Revisions in Stratigraphic Nomenclature of the Columbia River Basalt Group: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin no. 1457. U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thordarson, T. and Self, S. (1998) The Roza Member, Columbia River Basalt Group: A gigantic pahoehoe lava flow field formed by endogenous processes? Journal of Geophysical Research, 103, 27411–27427, 27445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ueshima, M. and Tazaki, K. (2001) Possible role of microbial polysaccharides in nontronite formation. Clays and Clay Minerals, 49, 292–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vantelon, D., Montarges-Pelletier, E., Michot, L.J., Pelletier, M., Thomas, F., and Briois, V. (2003) Iron distribution in the octahedral sheet of dioctahedral smectites. An Fe K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy study. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 30, 44–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, S.M. (2005) Sixpack: A graphical user interface for XAS analysis using IFEFFIT. Physica Scripta, T115, 1011–1014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westre, T.E., Kennepohl, P., DeWitt, J.G., Hedman, B., Hodgson, K.O., and Solomon, E.I. (1997) A multiplet analysis of Fe K-edge 1s → 3d pre-edge features of iron complexes. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 119, 6297–6314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844-3022, USA

    Leslie L. Baker

  2. Department of Plant, Soil, and Entomological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 83844-2339, USA

    Leslie L. Baker & Daniel G. Strawn

Authors
  1. Leslie L. Baker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Daniel G. Strawn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Leslie L. Baker.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Baker, L.L., Strawn, D.G. Temperature Effects on the Crystallinity of Synthetic Nontronite and Implications for Nontronite Formation in Columbia River Basalts. Clays Clay Miner. 62, 89–101 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2014.0620202

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2014.0620202

Key Words

Search

Navigation