1 Introduction

Each day, an amount comparable to the contents of 2,000 garbage trucks filled with plastic is released into the global oceans, rivers, and lakes. On an annual basis, between 19 and 23 million tonnes of plastic waste seep into aquatic ecosystems, causing pollution in lakes, rivers, and seas. A minimum of 14 million tons of plastic enters the ocean each year, establishing plastic debris as the predominant form of litter in the ocean [1, 2]. Plastic leakage into rivers and oceans is expected to rise one-third from 6 million tonnes in 2020 to over 9 million tonnes in 2040 [1]. An estimated 11.1 billion plastic items are entangled in aquatic ecosystems, harming marine species [2]. The pervasiveness of plastic pollution harms ecosystems and biodiversity [3]. Furthermore, over 1000 rivers account for 80% of global riverine plastic emissions, highlighting the contribution of minor rivers traversing broad coastal regions [4]. Plastic waste accounts for 80% of marine pollution, dumping 8–10 million metric tonnes into the ocean annually [7]. Furthermore, plastic waste possesses the ability to harm humans through ingestion via aquatic species and inhalation via air and also possesses capacity to trigger environmental degradation [3, 4]. Considering their ability to stay long in the environment, through degradation or fragmentation, the large plastic wastes tend to break into smaller sizes of various types such as macroplastics with size greater than 25 mm, microplastics with size less than 5 mm, and nanoplastics with size less than 1000 nm and further trigger health implications [5, 6]. Microplastics, made from larger plastic items or personal care product microbeads, have been identified in water, fish, and even the air[7]. This tiny particle may accumulate in the body and have unknown long-term health effects, requiring further research and action to limit hazards on both humans and organisms [6,7,8]. Therefore, because plastic waste is hazardous to the environment, governments must rise up with viable policies to guide reckless disposal into the environment to safeguard both the surface and groundwater sources [9]. Promoting waste management and recycling infrastructure, sustainable manufacturing and consumption habits, and eco-friendly alternatives to single-use plastics via multilateral projects and agreements to reduce plastic pollution are important [4]. In order to tackle plastic waste, public awareness, and individual initiatives are vital. Reducing plastic use, disposing of waste responsibly, and supporting sustainable packaging firms to improve the environment must be embraced [6]. To achieve a sustainable, plastic-free future, governments, industry, communities, and individuals must collaborate to reduce, reuse, and recycle plastics[4]. We must act together to reduce plastic wastes’ environmental impact and protect future generations[10]. Furthermore, these plastic particles interact with other contaminants such pharmaceutical effluents, dyes and heavy metals in the environment which further aggravate their existence in the environment [7, 11].

In Nigeria, the growing concern over plastic waste has reached a critical point, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions like Ilorin Township. As the population expands and urbanization accelerates, so does the generation of plastic waste, presenting significant implications for environmental sustainability and public health. The purpose of this study is to present a comprehensive assessment of plastic waste generation and management in Ilorin Township, Nigeria, employing the DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impacts, and Responses) analytical framework. By employing this approach, we shall be able to proffer sustainable potential pathways toward a circular economy model. The DPSIR framework serves as an environmental management and robust analysis tool suitable to probe the key drivers leading to plastic waste generation, the pressures exerted on the environment and communities, the current state of plastic waste management practices, and the impacts or implications these practices have on the local ecosystem and society [12, 13]. Therefore, the usage of this robust analysis will enable us to design evidence-based responses and recommendations, empowering stakeholders to combat the menace of the plastic waste challenge effectively in the environment. In addition, we seek to identify the circular economy as a promising pathway towards addressing the plastic waste crisis in Ilorin Township.

Transitioning from a linear "take-make-dispose" model to a circular economy approach means adopting a more sustainable and environmentally conscious pathway to promote the efficient use and recycling of plastic materials[14], while simultaneously minimizing the high volume of waste generation, thus conserving precious natural resources and fostering long-term economic growth [15, 16]. Therefore, embracing the circular economy approach presents an opportunity to redefine waste as a valuable resource, thereby creating a closed-loop system capable of facilitating economic growth while safeguarding the environment [17].

Waste management is one of Nigeria's greatest challenges. These wastes are plastic-generated wastes originating from various anthropogenic activities and are difficult to manage, according to research. The higher population density in Nigeria has been identified as one of the major factors contributing to poor waste management [3]. Manufacturing plastics and plastic products are increasing every year and higher than any other quantity of other wastes reported in the world. The global production of plastics reached approximately 390.7 million metric tons in 2021, showing a steady annual growth of 4%. Since the 1950s, plastics production has witnessed a remarkable surge, mainly due to the exceptional versatility of these materials, driving sustained growth in production over time. Correspondingly, the market value of plastics has witnessed a parallel rise, reflecting the continuous expansion of their applications and demand. Figure 1 shows the annual production of plastics worldwide from 1950 to 2021(in million metric tons) [18]. Most of the plastic manufactured are single-use plastic products and packaging materials. Therefore, a greater proportion of plastic products fall into the disposable product category[19]. Rather than being collected in waste bins for further processing, recovery, and standard disposal via recycling centers, incinerators, or landfills, a large number of waste plastic products are carelessly scattered or discarded into regions that are inaccessible for waste collection and hence terminating the possibility of recovery/recycling [20, 21].

Fig. 1
figure 1

Annual production of plastics worldwide from 1950 to 2021(in million metric tons) [18]

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Plastic waste poses significant challenges not only to terrestrial animals but also to marine life, making it a global issue of concern. The detrimental impacts of plastic waste have already manifested in environmental disasters, emphasizing the pressing need for the immediate adoption of effective plastic waste management techniques [22].

Plastic is one of the few materials that can be molded into any shape while still retaining its plastic properties. Plastics have sparked widespread interest in industrial and structural projects due to their numerous advantages, including low specific gravity, rust resistance, ease of fabrication, and low thermal and electrical conductivities. Furthermore, most plastics come in a wide range of colors, making them a valuable resource for decorative purposes[23]. There are over a hundred plastic manufacturing factories in Nigeria today, producing a-tons of plastic products that are widely used by people because they are simple to use, inexpensive, and convenient [3]. Polytene bags, which are used to carry groceries or package food, are also made from plastic. Plastic bottles are also made from plastic. These types of plastic are known as Polyethylene terephthalate, commonly abbreviated PET or PETE, and are primarily used in packaging liquids and are a common waste in Nigerian streets [24]. In Nigeria, a lot of plastic (poly) bags and PET bottles are used annually in local markets, food vendors, grocery stores, and traffic food hawkers, among other places. However, improper disposal approach has contributed to their high generation and accumulation with high volume of plastic material lay waste on the soil, be carried by the wind to drainage, or simply fill up land space, posing an environmental hazard [3, 24].

Through this study, we aspire to shed light on the complex interplay between plastic waste generation, management practices, and their implications in Ilorin Township. Furthermore, the study shall determine the generation rate, composition, and appropriate method of disposal of plastic waste and leveraging the DPSIR analysis and advocating for a circular economy pathway to foster collective commitment towards a more sustainable and resilient future, where plastic waste no longer poses a threat to the prosperity and well-being of the community and its surrounding environment with a greener approach.

1.1 Problem statement

The rapid growth in plastic waste generation has emerged as a critical environmental challenge in Ilorin Township, Nigeria, posing substantial risks to ecosystems, wildlife, and human health. The escalating plastic pollution calls for urgent and comprehensive measures to assess the current state of plastic waste generation and management in the area. The lack of systematic data on plastic waste generation and its impact on the environment hampers the development of effective waste management strategies. Additionally, the absence of a well-defined circular economy pathway further exacerbates the problem, hindering the transition towards sustainable plastic use and recycling practices. Therefore, the problem statement seeks to address the following key issues:

  1. (i)

    Plastic Waste Generation: The increasing population and urbanization in Ilorin Township have led to a surge in plastic waste generation, significantly contributing to the mounting environmental burden.

  2. (ii)

    Inadequate Waste Management: The existing waste management practices in the area may not be equipped to handle the escalating volume of plastic waste, resulting in improper disposal and environmental pollution.

  3. (iii)

    Environmental Impact: Plastic waste's negative effects on ecosystems, aquatic life, and land areas have become more evident, necessitating urgent action to mitigate these impacts and protect biodiversity.

  4. (iv)

    Circular Economy Pathway: The absence of a well-defined circular economy pathway for plastics prevents the efficient and sustainable use of plastic materials, hindering the transition towards a more resource-efficient and waste-free approach.

To address these issues, a comprehensive assessment is essential, utilizing the DPSIR analysis framework to identify the key factors influencing plastic waste dynamics. Understanding these underlying drivers of plastic waste and developing evidence-based responses would pave the way for effective plastic waste management strategies that protect the environment, conserve resources, and improve the overall well-being of the community in Ilorin Township.

2 Material and method

2.1 Study area

The Ilorin metropolis is on latitude 8° 24' N and 83° 6' N, longitude 4° 10' E and 4° 36' E located between the south-western and middle belt of Nigeria [25]. The three local government areas domiciled in the city are Ilorin East, Ilorin West, and Ilorin South. The recent population growth in Ilorin makes the city appropriate for this study because the demographic growth enhances the increase in plastic waste generation rate. The metropolis comprises 35 electoral wards: 12 wards in Ilorin East, with a land area of 486 km2; Ilorin West of about 105 km2 in area and 12 wards; and Ilorin South of 11 wards and an area of 174 km2. The National Population commission projects the population of Ilorin to be 908,490: Ilorin East 241,040, Ilorin South 243,120, and Ilorin West 424,330, based on the 2006 census. This data was used to predict the population of Ilorin for 2016 to 2020, a pictorial map is shown below in Fig. 2 [26].

Fig. 2
figure 2

Pictorial Map of Nigeria [26]

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2.2 Data collection and sample techniques

Data was collected with the aid of a structured questionnaire, which covers the study area (Gaa Akanbi and Tanke Oke Odo). The data was collected from primary and secondary sources.

2.2.1 Primary source

The data in this source was gathered through the distribution of questionnaires to residents within the selected study area. To conduct the waste generation survey, 10 households were chosen to provide information on the composition and amount of waste generated over an 8-day period. Plastic bags were given to the selected households for waste disposal. Each day, the collected samples were transferred from the study area to the school premises, where they were sorted and weighed using a weighing balance. The data obtained from this process was recorded for the 8-day duration.

The following means were used to obtain information on the field:

  1. (a)

    Reconnaissance survey and field observation

  2. (b)

    Oral interview

  3. (c)

    Questionnaire administration

  4. (d)

    Personal observation (Photography).

2.2.2 Secondary source

Secondary data was also sourced from Government distributions and papers, diaries, articles, papers and magazines, site distributions, populace registration, records, and reports from the office of the Kwara State Environmental Protection Agency (KWEPA), Kwara Waste Management Corporation (KWCC). The secondary data were additionally accomplished by visiting the recycling firm around the review region and information were gathered through surveys and oral Interviews.

2.3 Sampling frame

The sample frame population areas in study area (Tanke Oke-Odo and Gaa Akanbi) were chosen because the sampling frame is predicated on its high rate of solid waste generation (plastic waste) and also the corresponding issues for the management of those wastes following on-the-scene observations, and inspections of all communities within Ilorin South. Ilorin South L.G.A incorporates a population figure of 282,500 as of 2016 in line with the National Bureau of Statistics (web) and a projected population of 313,245 for 2021, at a rate of 3.00% where we used the population projections formula for calculation (see Eq. 1) [27]. To use Eq. 1 effectively as Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), it's crucial to continuously monitor and analyze the accuracy of projections against actual population growth. The rate of increase (r) and the time (t) are key variables that can be adjusted based on historical data and trends. Regularly updating these parameters ensures that projections remain relevant and reflective of changing demographic patterns, aiding in more informed decision-making processes.

$$Nt=P{e}^{rt}$$
(1)

where: Nt = The number of people at a future date P = The present population e = natural logarithm base of 2.71828 r = represents the rate of increase divided by 100 t = represents the time.

2.4 Procedure for data collection

The majority of the secondary data collected came from online sources, including digital platforms and e-libraries. Following the secondary data collection, 100 copies of questionnaires were distributed to the community within the study area. The method employed for waste collection in both study areas involved door-to-door collection. For assessing the generation rate and plastic waste composition, 10 households were randomly selected from each study area. The daily solid waste generation rate per capita was calculated, and the household-level solid waste generation rate in the socio-economic areas was determined using Eq. 2 [28].

$$Percapita\;waste\;generation = \frac{{total\;solid\;waste\;within7days}}{{7\;days \times total\;family\;size\;of\;households}}$$
(2)

The waste sample was gathered over a duration of 7 days, and trash bags were distributed to households within a specific socio-economic stratified community in the study area. Following the waste collection, it was transported from the study area to the school premises for weighing using a weigh balance, as depicted in the Fig. 3 below.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Sorting and weighing the waste

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2.4.1 Waste characterization

Is to determine how much plastic, paper, glass, food waste, and other wastes are in the waste samples obtained from the study area, the wastes are first characterized and labelled into the various types of waste that make up the waste samples that are collected. Next, the wastes are further weighed and converted into percentages.

2.4.2 Plastic waste composition

The waste samples were categorized based on their polymer composition, including classifications such as Polyethylene (PE), Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Poly styrene (PS), Polypropylene (PP), and other miscellaneous types. Subsequently, the weights of the waste samples were further measured, evaluated, and their respective percentages were determined.

2.5 Analytical procedure

For analysing the socioeconomic characteristics and waste behavior of the respondents, descriptive statistics, including frequency tables, pie charts, and bar charts, were employed. Graphs, charts, and tables were utilized to present the data outputs effectively. Microsoft Excel was utilized to aid in data visualization and presentation. Furthermore, statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS software version 15.0.

3 Result and discussion

3.1 Statistical analysis

A t-Test or ANOVA was adopted for the statistical analysis of the data to estimate the differences within each study. The data gathered in this study were subjected to a descriptive statistical analysis on Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. All the data analyses were performed at confidence level of α < 0.05. The corresponding p-values for each study are presented in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11. Excluding investigations on household waste generation rate for Gaa-akanbi (Table 4) and the generation rate for plastic waste (Table 6), all other studies showed that p values > 0.05. Therefore, it can be presumed that there is no significant variation between periods in the respective studies except for data in Tables 4 and 6. [29]

Table 1 Demographic information
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Table 2 plastic items get generated per month from the household
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Table 3 Methods of disposing plastic waste
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Table 4 Household waste generation rate for Gaa-akanbi
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Table 5 waste characterization for Gaa-akanbi
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Table 6 The generation rate for plastic waste
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Table 7 Composition of plastic waste generated
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Table 8 Household waste generation rate for Tanke Oke odo
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Table 9 waste characterization for Tanke Oke odo
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Table 10 The generation rate for plastic waste
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Table 11 Composition of plastic waste generated
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3.2 Analysis of demographic information of the respondents

Section one covers socioeconomic variables such as age group, gender, marital status, education level, size of household, and occupation.

From the field survey, it was discovered that the male respondents are more than the female respondents, 51% representing 51 males were interviewed and administered questionnaires. On the other hand, 49 females representing 49% of the respondents were interviewed and administered questionnaires in a similar fashion (Table 1). In the same vein, the age distribution of the respondents was analysed, in which 34% of the respondents were below ages of 20 years while those between age 20–30 years amounted to 47%. Those between age 31–40 years were 11% and 41–50 years were 5% of the respondents. Respondents between 50 years and above were the least of the respondents and they amount to 3% of the respondents (Table 1). This shows a youthful population of the respondents.

In the analysis of the marital status of the respondents in (Table 1), it was discovered that 69% of the respondents were single, 28% were married, 3% have separated. This result is influenced by the singular fact of the Tanke area been heavily occupied by students, apprentices likewise young employees due to the presence of the University of Ilorin and other socio-economic activities. However, an appalling number of respondents representing 6%, 30%, 54%, and 3% were primary school, secondary school, tertiary and master and above respectively, while 5% of the respondents amounted to people with no formal education (Table 1). According to Nigeria Demography and Health Survey (2013), defines literacy as being able to read all parts of a sentence, while those who have attended secondary school or higher institutions were literate. Therefore, it is evident that most of the respondents were educated and understood the subject matter.

The study further reveals in Table 1, that 64% of the respondents were students while 18% were unemployed by occupation and 11% were employed. This result is influenced by the Tanke area of which 56% of the copies of the questionnaire were administered to students, apprentices likewise young employees due to the presence of the University of Ilorin.

3.3 Disposable plastic items get generated per month from the household

Table 2 below shows the number of disposable plastic items get generated per month from the house. 22% of the respondent generate less than 10 items per month while a larger percentage which is 46% generate less than 50 and 32% generate more than 75.

3.4 Methods of disposing plastic waste

In Table 3, a larger percentage of the respondents dispose of their waste by burning which is amounted to 51%, 28% of the respondents handover their waste to the waste collector, 11% of the respondent dispose of their waste by dumping it into the municipal corporation collection bins, this result is influenced due to the insufficient of collection bin in the study area, and 10% of the respondents disposed of their waste in open dumping. This result indicates that the majority of residents in the research area burn their domestic solid waste because it is easier than bringing it to local waste management facilities or because they do not want to pay for regular waste collection services.

3.5 Analysis of respondents that give waste to waste recycling sectors

This study further investigates the waste disposal practices of respondents with a focus on their engagement with waste recycling sectors. The data, presented in Fig. 4, provides insights into whether respondents give their waste-to-waste management agencies for disposal. The results indicate that 31% of the respondents affirmatively engage with waste management agencies, while 69% do not utilize such services. The predominant reason for not availing waste management agency services is attributed to the perceived high cost associated with waste disposal. Thus, this finding underlines a significant barrier, with respondents citing financial constraints as a key factor influencing their decision not to opt for waste management agency services.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Analysis of respondents that give waste to Waste Recycling Sectors

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3.6 Waste generation rate for Gaa-akanbi

Table 4. shows that average waste generation by the households per capita per day was 0.05 kg/cap/day in the study area.

$${\text{To}}\;{\text{calculate}}\;{\text{waste}}\;{\text{generation}}\;{\text{for}}\;{\text{each}}\;{\text{day}} = \frac{{{\text{Total}}\;{\text{waste}}}}{{{\text{Total}}\;{\text{people}}}}$$
(3)

Average per capital generation = 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.04 + 0.05 + 0.06 + 0.05.

 = 0.35 kg/cap/day

 = 0.35/7 = 0.05 kg/ cap/day

3.7 Waste characterization for Gaa-Akanbi

Table 5 below shows the general waste composition in which plastic and polythene were the most waste generated, accounting for plastic 34.35%, polythene 45.65% the remaining of the waste consists of metal (2.70%), food waste (5.70%), paper (6.16%), Glass (4.48%) and other is (1.12%) (see Fig. 5). The main focus in this study is based on plastic waste which are the largest waste generated in the study areas.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Waste composition for Gaa-akanbi

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3.8 The generation rate for plastic waste

Table 6 above presents the detailed plastic waste generation rate observed in the Gaa Akanbi area. Each row represents a different household, and the corresponding plastic waste generation for each household is listed in kilograms per capita per day. After sorting the general waste in the Gaa Akanbi area, the average plastic waste generation rate was calculated to be 0.16 kg per capita per day. This calculation considers the plastic waste produced by each household, offering valuable insights into the overall plastic waste generation pattern in the area. The process of sorting the general waste ensures that only the plastic waste is accurately measured, excluding other types of waste from the data. Therefore, the detailed information presented in Table 6 can be utilized by local authorities and policymakers to formulate effective waste management strategies, promote recycling initiatives, and implement policies that encourage reduced plastic usage and proper disposal methods.

$${\text{Plastic}}\;{\text{waste}}\;{\text{generation}}\;{\text{rate}} = \frac{{{\text{Total}}\;{\text{plastic}}\;{\text{waste}}\;{\text{within}}\;7\;{\text{day}}}}{{{\text{total}}\;{\text{number}}\;{\text{of}}\;{\text{people}}}}$$
(4)

3.9 To determine the composition of plastic waste generated for Gaa-Akanbi

In Table 7, the data clearly illustrates that the most prevalent type of plastic generated in the study area is Polyethylene PE, making up a substantial portion of the total plastic waste at 57.05%, while Polyethylene terephthalate PET follows behind at 12.83%. The remaining plastic waste is composed of Polystyrene PS (12.25%), Polypropylene PP (11.08%), and other miscellaneous types (6.76%). The prominent presence of Polyethylene PE in the plastic waste stream highlights its widespread usage and consumption in various products, indicating the need for targeted measures to manage and recycle this specific plastic type. Additionally, the notable contribution of Polyethylene terephthalate PET signals the significance of plastic bottles and containers in the overall plastic waste composition, emphasizing the importance of efficient recycling systems to address their environmental impact. Recognizing the proportional distribution of other plastic types, such as Polystyrene PS and Polypropylene PP, further underscores the complexity of plastic waste management and underscores the requirement for comprehensive strategies to handle these different materials responsibly.

The data provided by Table 7 serves as a valuable resource for policymakers, waste management authorities, and environmental organizations in devising effective solutions to tackle the plastic waste crisis in the study area. By understanding the dominant plastic types and their respective contributions, targeted interventions can be designed to reduce plastic pollution, promote recycling, and foster a more sustainable approach to plastic consumption and disposal.

3.9.1 Waste generation rate for Tanke Oke odo

Table 8 presents a crucial finding revealing that the average waste generation per capita per day by households in the study area, Tanke Oke Odo amounts to 0.59 kg/cap/day. This data serves as a fundamental metric to comprehend the magnitude of waste production on an individual basis, highlighting the substantial impact of household activities on overall waste generation in the region. The calculated average considers the combined waste output from all households surveyed, encompassing a diverse range of waste types and materials. By establishing this baseline figure, the study gains valuable insights into the overall waste generation trends within the community, shedding light on the need for effective waste management strategies and sustainable practices to mitigate environmental repercussions.

The significance of this average waste generation rate extends beyond numerical representation. It underlines the collective responsibility of households in contributing to waste production and its subsequent management, urging a shared commitment to adopt eco-friendly behaviors and waste reduction practices. The implications of this data reach far and wide, prompting stakeholders, local authorities, and residents alike to collaboratively address the escalating waste challenge. By leveraging this comprehensive understanding of waste generation patterns, informed decisions can be made to implement waste segregation programs, recycling initiatives, and education campaigns aimed at minimizing waste production and promoting a circular economy. Ultimately, the findings presented in Table 8 act as a call-to-action for sustainable waste management practices, urging society to embrace a more responsible and conscientious approach to consumption and waste disposal to safeguard the environment and create a cleaner, greener future for generations to come.

Average per capital generation = 0.10 + 0.10 + 0.09 + 0.09 + 0.10 + 0.10 + 0.10

 = 0.68 kg/cap/day

 = 0.68 / 7 = 0.09 kg/cap/day

3.9.2 Waste characterization for Tanke Oke odo

In Table 9, the comprehensive breakdown of general waste composition highlights the dominance of plastic and polythene, constituting 19.66% and 25.32% of the total waste generated, respectively. The remaining waste categories encompass metal (12.11%), food waste (12.84%), paper (15.25%), and other miscellaneous items (13.97%) (see Fig. 6). The study's primary emphasis revolves around plastic waste due to its substantial representation as the largest waste type generated in the study areas, underscoring the critical importance of addressing plastic pollution and implementing effective waste management strategies.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Waste composition for Tanke Oke odo

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3.9.3 The generation rate for plastic waste

Table 10 presents the generation rate of plastic waste in the Tanke Oke odo area, revealing an average generation rate of 0.29 kg/cap/day, which was meticulously accumulated following the sorting of general waste to provide a precise assessment of plastic waste production in the region. This data serves as a crucial metric to gauge the scale of plastic waste generation on a per capita basis, highlighting the need for targeted waste management strategies to address the substantial impact of plastic pollution in the study area.

$${\text{Plastic}}\;{\text{waste}}\;{\text{generation}}\;{\text{rate}} = \frac{{{\text{Total}}\;{\text{plastic}}\;{\text{waste}}\;{\text{within}}\;7\;{\text{day}}}}{{{\text{total}}\;{\text{number}}\;{\text{of}}\;{\text{people}}}}$$
(5)

3.9.4 To determine the composition of plastic waste generated for Tanke Oke-Odo

In Table 11, the data clearly indicates that Polyethylene PE is the most prevalent type of plastic generated, accounting for a substantial percentage of 56.28%, followed by Polyethylene terephthalate PET at 15.73%. These findings underscore the widespread use of Polyethylene PE and its significant contribution to the overall plastic waste composition in the study area. The remaining plastic waste is comprised of Polystyrene PS (12.21%), Polypropylene PP (9.65%), and other miscellaneous types (6.12%). These percentages shed light on the diverse range of plastics present in the waste stream, emphasizing the complexity of managing different plastic materials and the necessity for targeted approaches to handle their disposal effectively. Understanding the dominant types of plastics generated, such as Polyethylene PE and Polyethylene terephthalate PET, is crucial for devising tailored waste management strategies that prioritize recycling and responsible disposal of these specific plastics. Additionally, addressing the presence of other plastic types, like Polystyrene PS and Polypropylene PP, requires targeted initiatives to minimize their environmental impact and promote sustainable practices to combat plastic pollution effectively.

The introduction of plastic wastes into clay soil, which has the potential to influence the geotechnical qualities of clay soil, makes these concerns much more severe [30]. Microbial ecosystems in the soil may be disturbed by plastic waste. Plant development and soil health can be impacted by the disruption of microorganisms, which are essential to the cycling of nutrients[31,32,33]. Surface runoff problems may be exacerbated by plastic particles on the soil's surface and subsequently hinder the absorption of water and raise the possibility of soil erosion when it rains [31, 33]. To address this problem, simple and cost-effective adsorption method with various cheap and sustainable adsorbents such as biochar [6, 34], clay and composites has been proposed as a suitable technique [34]. Furthermore, it is of the utmost importance to enact laws and regulations that will encourage the adoption of sustainable practices that will reduce the amount of plastic that is produced and used [6, 16]. Additionally, a circular economy approach that emphasizes reducing, reusing, and recycling plastic waste has the potential to successfully address the issue of plastic contamination with efficient waste management to curb reckless disposal of plastic wastes [6] Details of circular economy and applicable solutions are discussed in the subsequent sections.

4 A DPSIR framework analysis: the relevance, the application and suitability!

With the aid of DPSIR framework, the stakeholders (the stakeholders involved in this assessment may include local residents, waste management authorities, environmental organizations, policymakers, researchers, and relevant government agencies responsible for waste management and environmental protection in Ilorin Township) shall be able to accurately come up with suitable solutions to address plastic waste issues. This approach shall help to understand and analyze the complex relationships between human activities, environmental pressures, ecological states, resulting impacts, and policy responses related to plastic wastes. Therefore, we emphasize the relevance, application, and suitability of DPSIR in the context of assessing plastic waste generation and management in Ilorin Township below:

  1. (I)

    Relevance of DPSIR to this study

The relevance of DPSIR framework in plastic waste generation and management in Ilorin Township can be expressed as:

  1. (a)

    Complexity: Through this study, we discovered that plastic waste generation and management involve multiple interconnected factors, depicting it a complex issue. Therefore, DPSIR framework is suitable to resolve its complexity by organizing the different elements and their relationships to provide adequate solution.

  2. (b)

    Policy Guidance: Using DPSIR framework can really help both the policymakers and stakeholders to correctly identify the major key driving causes of plastic waste generation, assessing its impacts on the environment with ability to formulate efficient and sustainable management strategies.

  3. (c)

    Holistic Understanding: Since DPSIR tends to shed more light into impending implications on the social, economic, and environmental dimensions, it would help to avoid narrow and incomplete assessments.

  4. (d)

    Application of DPSIR to this study

Applying the DPSIR framework to assess plastic waste generation and management in Ilorin Township would involve the following steps:

  1. (a)

    Driving Forces: Identify the key factors responsible for plastic waste generation in the township. This could include population growth, urbanization, industrialization, consumer behavior, tourism, etc. By identifying driving forces and pressures, the framework helps in developing targeted and effective policies and strategies to address plastic waste-related issues. The increasing population and urbanization contribute to the escalating plastic waste problem, while improper waste disposal methods, such as open dumping and burning, exacerbate environmental pollution.

  2. (b)

    Pressures: Examine the various pressures exerted on the environment due to plastic waste generation. This practically involves relevant anthropogenic activities. Furthermore, this may include littering, improper waste disposal, lack of recycling infrastructure, etc. The dominance of certain plastic types, like Polyethylene PE and Polyethylene terephthalate PET, indicates the need for targeted recycling and waste reduction efforts.

  3. (c)

    State: To adequately come up with the right solution, the current state of plastic waste in the township requires keen evaluation to assess the quantity, types of plastic waste, and their distribution in Ilorin township.

  4. (d)

    Impact: The current implications need to be identified. Analysis of the environmental, economic, and social impacts of plastic waste is important as this could involve assessing pollution, effects on wildlife, health implications, economic costs, etc.

  5. (e)

    Response: Response may also include the evaluation of the existing policies, regulations, and initiatives to be able propose the right approach for the management of plastic waste in Ilorin Township. Therefore, evaluating their effectiveness and identify potential gaps and opportunities for improvement is inevitable. The Fig. 7 below represents schematic evaluation of plastic waste generation in Ilorin township and proposed solutions (responses) using DPSIR framework analysis.

  6. (f)

    Suitability of DPSIR to this study

Fig. 7
figure 7

Schematic evaluation of plastic waste generation in Ilorin township and proposed solutions (responses) using DPSIR framework analysis

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The DPSIR framework is suitable for assessing plastic waste generation and management in Ilorin Township due to the following reasons:

  1. (a)

    Comprehensive Analysis: The framework allows for a comprehensive analysis that considers all relevant aspects of plastic waste, from its generation to its impact on the environment and society. The analysis reveals several critical issues related to plastic waste generation and management in Ilorin Township.

  2. (b)

    Policy Development: By identifying driving forces and pressures, the framework helps in developing targeted and effective policies and strategies to address plastic waste-related issues. Despite the challenges, this assessment presents opportunities for addressing plastic waste management in Ilorin Township. Implementing effective waste segregation programs and promoting recycling initiatives can significantly reduce plastic pollution and its adverse impacts on the environment and public health. Raising awareness among residents about sustainable waste management practices and promoting community engagement can also yield positive outcomes.

  3. (c)

    Data Integration: The assessment provides comprehensive data on plastic waste generation in Ilorin Township, Nigeria, including the average generation rate and composition of plastic waste. It also offers insights into the general waste composition and the percentage contribution of different plastic types, such as Polyethylene PE, Polyethylene terephthalate PET, Polystyrene PS, and Polypropylene PP, along with other miscellaneous types. The DPSIR framework promotes the integration of data from various sources, aiding in evidence-based decision-making and identifying knowledge gaps.

5 Circular economy and plastic waste pollution: what government should do

To address plastic waste generation and accumulation in Ilorin Township, the government should adopt a circular economy approach. The circular economy is a sustainable economic model that aims to minimize waste, keep products and materials in use for as long as possible, and regenerate natural systems. Therefore, we recommend that the government should employ the underlisted approaches to combat plastic waste generation and accumulation in Ilorin Township:

  1. (1)

    Awareness and Education Campaigns: The government should initiate public awareness and education campaigns to explain the environmental impacts of plastic waste pollution. These campaigns can be conducted through various channels, including social media, community events, workshops, and educational institutions. The goal is to raise awareness among residents about the importance of reducing plastic waste and adopting sustainable practices. The government should enhance collaboration with stakeholders and the public, ensuring they comprehend the consequences of irresponsible plastic waste disposal [35].

  2. (2)

    Collection and Analysis of Data: To understand the extent of plastic waste generation and accumulation, the government should conduct surveys and collect relevant data[35]. This includes studying waste generation patterns, identifying major sources of plastic waste, and analyzing waste management practices. The data collected will help in formulating targeted policies and strategies. Understanding the specific material components within waste forms the foundation for planning and developing any waste management system. This data is also essential for establishing benchmarks and assessing the efficacy of environmental policies[36]. Typically, waste fraction composition studies are conducted to determine the fractional breakdown of waste, presenting weight percentages for key materials like paper, plastic, metal, and food waste.

  3. (3)

    Stakeholder Engagement: Engaging with stakeholders, including local businesses, waste management companies, community leaders, and NGOs, is crucial in addressing plastic waste pollution effectively. The government should organize consultation meetings to gather input, share information, and collaborate on waste reduction initiatives. Stakeholder engagement tends to generate knowledge for value cocreation but is also indispensable for designing incentive-compatible environmental policies.

  4. (4)

    Implement Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Programs: The government should introduce Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) programs, which hold producers responsible for the entire lifecycle of their products, including managing their waste [37]. EPR programs encourage manufacturers to design products with recycling in mind and establish take-back systems for end-of-life products. If the government can assess the performance indicators of the EPR program with necessary revision for the contribution fee of producers obligated to recycle (POR) depending on the market price of plastic wastes [38].

  5. (5)

    Introduce Plastic Regulations: The government should consider imposing or restrictions on single-use plastics and promoting the use of sustainable alternatives. Legislation can be put in place to limit the production, sale, and distribution of certain plastic items, such as plastic bags and disposable cutlery. [39]. Moreover, the government should support and incentivize businesses, communities, and individuals that actively participate in plastic waste reduction initiatives. This may include providing grants, tax incentives, or awards for outstanding efforts in reducing plastic waste.

6 Sustainable upcycling of plastic wastes: a key solution toward achieving circular economy!

To promote a circular economy, the government should invest in recycling infrastructure, including collection centers and recycling facilities. This will facilitate the proper segregation, recycling, and upcycling of plastic waste, reducing its accumulation in the environment [40]. Opting for the recycling and reutilization of plastic waste consistently proves to be a more advantageous choice when contrasted with the alternatives of burying it in landfills or subjecting it to incineration. Nonetheless, the recycling of plastic waste encounters limitations stemming from physical aspects like the collection, sorting, and initial treatment as well as technical difficulties such as chemical interactions between the plastic waste and the processing substances. For instance, plastic wastes are suitable precursors for the production of solid carbon materials such as biochar and activated carbon [15] which are suitable for various applications such as adsorbents for wastewater treatment, composites for making durable bricks in construction industry etc. Therefore, upcycling discarded PET plastic wastes into modified biochar for capturing post-combustion CO2 not only addresses the pressing problems of plastic pollution and climate change concurrently, but also establishes a carbon neutral within the overall lifecycle [41]. This innovative method offers a promising pathway towards achieving 2030 sustainable agenda [16, 42] and carbon neutrality by 2050 [41, 43]and as well promoting sustainable management of plastic resources [43]. A study has demonstrated potential of discarded plastic and biomass as viable feedstocks for the production of biofuels and chemicals as alternative to non-renewable fuels. The study not only tackled current obstacles and future prospects but also put forth a harmonized strategy that aligns waste handling, climate change mitigation, and safeguarding the environment [44]. Converting plastics into valuable carbon nanomaterials through upcycling presents an environmentally friendly strategy for handling plastic waste and holds significant potential [45]. These materials can be used in various applications. Therefore, government needs to create sustainable and enabling environment for the researchers, stakeholders, and other relevant institutions to come up with workable approach to address plastic wastes productively towards achieving circular economy to promote sustainability.

7 Recommendations

Lastly, based on the DSIPR analysis, several recommendations are proposed. Firstly, the local authorities should develop and enforce proper waste management policies and regulations, including the establishment of recycling centers and waste collection programs. Secondly, educational campaigns should be conducted to educate residents about the importance of responsible plastic waste disposal and the benefits of recycling. Collaboration among stakeholders is essential to implement sustainable waste management practices and foster a culture of environmental consciousness in Ilorin Township. Lastly, further research and monitoring are necessary to track progress, identify emerging challenges, and continuously improve plastic waste management strategies in the region with circular economy approach. Encourage research and innovation in sustainable materials and waste management technologies. The government can provide funding and support for research projects that aim to find alternative materials to plastics and improve recycling processes. For instance, recently a sustainable and innovative approach of upcycling plastic wastes to value-added products has been initiated with various researchers working towards bringing it to limelight.

8 Conclusion

The study reveals that the average generated plastic waste per capita for both the study areas, Gaa-Akanbi and Tanke Oke-Odo, was estimated to be 0.16 kg/cap/day and 0.29 kg/cap/day, respectively. Plastic waste composition determination was presented in percentages, with Gaa-Akanbi having Polyethylene (PE) at 57.05%, Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) at 12.83%, Polystyrene (PS) at 12.25%, Polypropylene (PP) at 11.08%, and other types at 6.76%. For Tanke Oke-Odo, the plastic waste composition consisted of PE (56.28%), PET (15.73%), PS (12.21%), PP (9.65%), and other types (6.12%). With the exception of examinations into the household waste generation rate for Gaa-akanbi (refer to Table 4) and the generation rate for plastic waste (refer to Table 6), all remaining investigations indicated p values exceeding 0.05. Consequently, it is reasonable to infer that there is no statistically significant divergence between the observed periods in the respective studies, except for the data presented in Tables 4 and 6. In conclusion, based on the current knowledge of plastic waste management in the study areas, it is evident that the majority of residents do not maintain a sustainable and environmentally friendly way of disposing of their waste. The data collected from questionnaire respondents on waste disposal methods showed that 28% hand over their waste to collectors, 11% use municipal corporation collection bins, 10% resort to open dumping, and a significant 51% burn their waste, contributing to environmental pollution. The release of airborne pollutants can result in pollution in close proximity to the combustion site, impacting neighboring communities through the dissemination of foul smells and the discharge of harmful compounds. This, in turn, can lead to detrimental consequences for health, property, and the visual appeal of buildings. Addressing this issue requires adopting a circular economy approach and applying the DPSIR framework. The circular economy principles advocate for waste reduction, recycling, and resource efficiency. Encouraging residents to patronize waste recycling firms can help convert plastic waste into new products, reducing the need for manufacturing new domestic products and minimizing carbon emissions harmful to the ozone layer. Furthermore, implementing plastic bag charges can discourage single-use plastic consumption and further reduce plastic waste generation. By applying the DPSIR framework, policymakers can understand the driving forces behind unsustainable waste disposal practices, assess the environmental impacts, and develop targeted responses to promote sustainable plastic waste management in the study areas. Addressing waste separation challenges will also be crucial in accurately identifying the total amount of plastic waste generated and enhancing waste analysis and management efforts.