1 Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal crops that can be cultivated under various environmental stresses, including salinity and/or sodicity stress (Liu et al. 2023). However, these unfavorable environmental factors pose a serious threat to rice production and significantly reduce productivity (El Sherbiny et al. 2022). Internationally, rice is an important staple food crop for more than 50% of the global population and supplies 20% of the daily calorie requirements, whereas it locally ranks second behind wheat and ahead of maize and barley in terms of importance (USDA 2022). Globally, the total area harvested of rice was 164.3 million hectares and its production was 503.3 million metric tons in the 2022 season (Guo et al. 2023). According to USDA (2022) data, the total harvested area, production, and productivity of rice were 0.60 million hectares, 8.7 metric tons per hectare (ha−1), and 3.6 million metric tons, respectively, in Egypt. Rice production decreased in the 2022 cropping season than the previous year with 2.3% and 24.1% in Egypt and the world, respectively (Tourky et al. 2023). Most rice-cultivated areas are salt-affected soil, whereas the great areas of salt-affected areas are saline-sodic soil (Kheir et al. 2019). Rice is a salt-tolerant crop that can grow in saline-sodic soil and produce a reasonable yield with sufficient irrigation water availability and modification of such degraded soil properties in favor of crop root growth (Huang et al. 2017). The development of salt-tolerant rice genotypes is one practical approach to alleviate the effects of salinity. Genetic diversity among genotypes is the main requirement for generating salt-tolerant cultivars (Bhatt et al. 2020). Efforts now focus on breeding hybrid rice genotypes that have main features such as long panicles, more productive tillers, high-yielding (Zayed et al. 2014; Sruthi et al. 2019), and tolerant stresses (Pongprayoon et al. 2019). Rice genotypes are differentially influenced by salinity at various growth stages and the response to salinity certainly varies from one growth stage to another Mohanty et al. (2023). The mechanism of plant salinity tolerance is minimizing salt entry into the plant or reducing the concentration of salt in the cytoplasm (Bhatt et al. 2020). Salt-tolerant plants showed a low sodium (Na+) content but high potassium (K+) content, which generally results in a low Na+/K+ ratio. Simultaneously, the accumulation of Na+ and chloride ions may cause ionic imbalance, which impairs the selectivity of root membranes and thus may cause K+ deficiency in plants.

Good management of degraded agricultural soils, irrigation water, and agronomic practices is critical to preventing desertification and ensuring food security (Shaaban et al. 2023a), as arable land is limited. However, salinization, following erosion, has been a key source of soil deterioration leading to reduce agricultural yields and may produce desertification if it is severe enough (Ding et al. 2020). There are three types of salt-impaired soils commonly including saline, saline-sodic, and sodic soils (Zaman et al. 2018). Salinization is an excess of the total soluble salts in the root zone of a soil profile whereas sodication or alkalization is the superfluxes of specific salt Na+. Globally, about 0.34 × 109 ha are saline and 0.56 × 109 ha are sodic representing 23 and 37% of the cultivated lands, respectively, with effects extending to 100 countries around the world, predominantly located in arid and semi-arid regions including Egypt with 1 × 106 ha (Qadir et al. 2001; Zaman et al. 2018). Interestingly, saline-sodic soils contain enough soluble salts (saturated electrical conductivity, ECe > 4 dS m−1) to impede the growth of the wade range of plants and sufficient exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) > 15 and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) > 13 with pH fluctuating below or above 8.5 (Corwin and Scudiero 2019). Saline-sodic soils are degraded both by the negative effects of salinity on plant growth and of sodicity on soil structure deterioration (Chaganti and Crohn 2015; Adeyemo et al. 2022). Therefore, the persistence of salinity and sodicity, as a criminal duo, in soil could result in a reduction in vegetation and crop yield, leading to desertification, a reduction in soil biological activity, biodiversity loss and ecosystem disruption, contamination of groundwater, and ultimately, a deterioration in socioeconomic conditions due to loss of income, unemployment, and poverty (Zaman et al. 2018).

Successful rehabilitation of saline-sodic soil requires a two-step process including the use of a calcium (Ca2+) source to displace Na+ on clay surfaces, hence promoting soil flocculation, followed by leaching to remove salts from the soil profile (Yahya et al. 2022). Gypsum commonly represents an efficient source of Ca2+ in saline-sodic soils as a primary agent applied in a chemically curing strategy for saline-sodic soils (Day et al. 2018). Another strategy for resource Ca2+, to offset Na+ on the exchange sites, is retrieving it from the soil by the action of elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid on native calcite through solubilization (Ahmed et al. 2016). An alternative option for reclaiming and ameliorating salt-affected soils is the incorporation of organic amendments including farmyard manure, crop residues, or compost which act to potentially sustain and improve physical, chemical, and biological aspects (Rezapour et al. 2022; Shaaban et al. 2022; Alghamdi et al. 2023). Composts are outcome products of various controlled biological processes that act to transform the raw initial material into a stable and mature product (Diaz et al. 2007). So, composted materials most frequently are harnessed in ameliorating a saline-sodic soil through rebuilding soil physico-biochemical properties as well as enhancing microbial community and activities (Lakhdar et al. 2009; Chaganti and Crohn 2015). Also, phytoremediation using salt-tolerant crops has been progressively adopted, especially in developing countries, as a cheaper alternative to chemical amendments depending on the same concept of native calcite dissolution by building up the partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2) in the rhizosphere (Qadir et al. 2007). Taking this in mind, the study objectives were to (a) evaluate the differential responses of three commercial rice genotypes grown under salt-affected soil in terms of the morpho-physio-biochemical traits and productivity to saline-sodic stress and (b) investigate and compare the potential restorative role of seven organic/inorganic amendments for ameliorating soil salinity-sodicity stress of the tested rice genotypes and identify the key responsible mechanisms. Our research hypothesis was that adding organic/inorganic amendments to saline-sodic soil might positively modify its physico-chemical and biological properties and improve the productivity of three commercial rice genotypes locally grown in saline-sodic soil in Egypt.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Area and Soil–water Characteristics

The experimentation was carried out at the experimental farm of El-Sirw Agriculture Research Station, Damietta governorate, Egypt, during the summer seasons of 2019 and 2020. The area is directly at sea level and is situated at a latitude of 31° 14′ N and a longitude of 29° 15′ E. The main characteristics of the site are long dry summer with an average temperature of 32–36 °C during growing seasons and slightly winter rainfall. Annual precipitation was ranged 100–119 mm (Kafr Abu Sad station, Damietta government, Egypt). Soil samples were taken before sowing from soil depth (0–20 cm) and air-dried, crushed, and sieved through a 2-mm sieve to determine soil characteristics (Table S1) according to Jackson (1973), Wolf (1982), and Seilsepour et al. (2009). Irrigation water source used in the study is agricultural drainage obtained from El-Horna drain, Damietta government, Egypt. At the beginning of each growing season, ten irrigation water samples were collected from the middle of the watercourse, placed in precleared plastic bottles, and then sent directly to the laboratory to determine irrigation water quality (Table S1). The irrigation water pH and salinity parameters (electrical conductivity, SAR, and soluble cations and anions) were measured according to the methods described by APHA (2005).

2.2 Treatments, Field Experimental Design, and Experimental Layout

The soil was plowed thoroughly and dry levelled after harvesting wheat. The trial involved two factors; three commercial rice cultivars, namely Sakha 106, Giza 179, and Egyptian hybrid rice 1 (EHR1); and eight soil organic/inorganic amendments, i.e., control, gypsum (6.4 t ha−1), rice straw compost (RSC, 5 t ha−1), farmyard manure (FYM, 7 t ha−1), sulfur (2 t ha−1), sulfuric acid 95% (240 l ha−1), calcium superphosphate (CSP, 500 kg ha−1), and rice husk (2.5 t ha−1). The treatments were arranged in a two-factor strip plot in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. The tested rice cultivars were distributed in the horizontal strip, whereas the soil organic/inorganic amendments were allocated in the vertical strip. The experimental plot size was 40 m2 (8 m × 5 m). All soil organic/inorganic amendments except sulfuric acid were applied during land preparation and mixed with the soil surface. Sulfuric acid was fertigated at 12, 24, and 36 days after transplanting. The characteristics of organic amendments are shown in Table S2. The pedigree and characteristics of the tested rice cultivars are listed in Table S3.

According to the method described by Owis et al. (2016), the compost was prepared using rice straw as a primary material. Chopped straw was amended with bulking agents including farmyard manure, rock phosphate, feldspar, and bentonite at rates of 15, 5, 5, and 10% (w/w), respectively. The compost heaps were occasionally wetted to maintain their moisture about 60% of the water holding capacity and turning was done every week for homogenizing and aerating along the composting process. The mature product of compost is evaluated according to Thompson et al. (2001) and Haynes et al. (2015) and used after maturation (4 months). Gypsum (CaSO4 powder with 80% purity) was applied according to soil gypsum requirement for 0–20-cm soil depth. The gypsum required was determined from the amount of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) in the soil layer.

2.3 Agronomic Management

Rice grains were soaked in water for 48 h and then incubated for 24 h to enhance germination before sowing the nursery. Rice cultivars were sown on May 5th and 4th during the first and second seasons, respectively. Seedlings, aged 30 days, were transplanted at the plant spacing of 20 cm × 20 cm at a rate of 3 seedlings per hill. Each plot consists of 20 rows. The irrigation system was continuous flooding. The entire experimental area (i.e., 96 experimental plots, each with a 40 m2 net area) was fertilized with phosphoric acid at a rate of 54 kg P2O5 ha−1 at 9, 15, and 21 days after transplanting and potassium sulfate at a rate of 57 kg K2O ha−1 in two equal doses, the first dose as basal and another dose at 60 days after transplanting. Nitrogen in the form of urea (46% N) at the 165 kg N ha−1 was applied in four doses (3, 18, 36, and 48 days after transplanting) as recommended for salt-affected soil (Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation 2020). As recommended, other agronomic practices of rice were followed under the conditions of saline-sodic soil during the growing seasons.

2.4 Observations and Measurements

2.4.1 Soil Physico-chemical and Microbial Properties

At the end of the experiments in each season, soil samples from the soil surface at 0–20 cm depth were collected from each experimental plot for determining the electrical conductivity of saturated soil paste extract (ECe), soil reaction (pH), and Na+ content as well as bulk density according to Jackson (1973), Chapman and Pratt (1978), and Wolf (1982), respectively. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and ESP in saturated soil paste were estimated according to Allison et al. (1954) as follows:

$${\text{SAR}}=\frac{{\text{Na}}}{\sqrt{\frac{({\text{Ca}}+{\text{Mg}})}{2}}}$$
$${\text{ESP}}=\frac{{\text{ESR}}}{(1+{\text{ESR}})}\times 100$$

where ESR =  − 0.0126 + (0.01475) × (SAR). The microbiological characteristics of subsampled soil, previously conserved at − 4 °C, were estimated in terms of microbial biomass carbon, soil respiration rate, and dehydrogenase enzymes according to procedures described by Alef and Nannipieri (1995).

2.4.2 Morpho-physiological Responses

At 100 days after sowing (BBCH-65, full flowering), rice samples were taken, transferred to the laboratory, and prepared to determine morpho-physiological characteristics. Plants of m2 were taken from inner rows to estimate shoots dry weight (g). The leaf area of plant samples was measured by Portable Area Meter (Model LI–3000A, Nebraska, USA) and then the leaf area index (LAI) was calculated (Weiss et al. 2004). Total chlorophyll content was determined in ten flag leaves using a chlorophyll meter (SPAD Model–502, Osaka, Japan). Leaves fresh weight (FW) was estimated then leaves were submerged for 6 h in distilled water to obtain leaves turgid weight (TW) and subsequently dried in an oven at 70 °C until constant weight to obtain leaves dry weight (DW). Relative water content (RWC%) was determined according to Hayat et al. (2007) as follows:

$$\mathrm{RWC }(\mathrm{\%})= \frac{({\text{FW}}-{\text{DW}})}{({\text{TW}}-{\text{DW}})} \times 100$$

2.5 Catalase (CAT) Activity, Osmoprotectants, and Inorganic Electrolytes

Catalase (CAT) activity was determined according to Aebi (1984). Non-structural carbohydrates were extracted by ethanol (80%) as described by Prud’homme et al. (1992). Free proline content was measured as described by Bates et al. (1973). Furthermore, Na+ and K+ contents in dried rice leaves were measured using a flame photometer described by Wolf (1982).

2.6 Rice Yield and Its Components

At the physiological maturity stage (BBCH-89 full ripe), panicle’s number was measured from guarded plants of m−2. Fifteen panicles from each experimental plot were randomly collected to estimate panicle weight (g), panicle length (cm), number of filled grains panicle−1, and 1000-grain weight (g). The ten inner rows of each experimental plot were harvested, dried, and threshed, and the grain and biological yields ha−1 were calculated based on the moisture content of 14%.

2.7 Economic Evaluation

The economic evaluation of the crop budget was conducted to evaluate the total return and costs of production and return effectiveness of all tested amendments. Total cost, total return, and net return in US dollars (US$) were computed based on the change in the exchange rate between the Egyptian pound and the US dollar during the first and second growing seasons (US$ 1 = 16.33 and 15.75 Egyptian pounds, respectively). Total cost included fixed cost (soil rent, soil preparation, seeding and planting, irrigation, fertilization, weed control, pest control, harvesting, transportation, labor, etc.) and treatment cost was calculated according to quantity and price of each amendment. The cost of production was calculated from the data presented in the bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Economic Affairs Sector, Egypt. The main product represented from the rice crop (grains) was used to estimate the total return of yield (US$ ha−1) based on the quantity produced and the price of ton (US$ 385.79 and 406.35 for the 2009 and 2010 seasons, respectively). Net return (US$ ha−1) = total return – total costs. Changes in total return were determined as follows:

$$\mathrm{Changes}\;\mathrm{in}\;\mathrm{total}\;\mathrm{return}(\%)=\frac{\mathrm{Total}\;\mathrm{return}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{amendment}-\mathrm{Total}\;\mathrm{return}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{control}}{\mathrm{Total}\;\mathrm{return}\;\mathrm{of}\;\mathrm{control}}\times100$$

2.8 Data Set and Statistical Analysis

1.6. All crop traits were subjected to randomized strip-plot analysis, while the soil physico-chemical and microbiological properties were subjected to RCBD analysis with four replications (Snedecor and Cochran 1989) using CoStat 6.4 software package. All obtained data were represented as the mean ± standard error (SE) and multiple comparisons were performed using the Duncan test at ≤ 0.05 probability level (Steel et al. 1997). Pearson’s correlation coefficient using heatmap plot matrix and principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to assess the association among all the studied traits (soil–plant measurements) using the Origin Pro 2023b computer software program (OriginLab Co., Northampton, MA, USA).

3 Results

3.1 Soil Physico-chemical and Microbial Properties

Data illustrated in Figs. 1, 2, and 3 showed that the soil amendments had a significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on soil properties as an average of the three rice genotypes in both seasons (Tables S4 and S5). Among the seven soil amendments, RSC, gypsum, and sulfur were the best effective in ameliorating saline soil properties through reducing ECe by 12.7 and 31.2%, 11.7 and 30.4%, and 10.5 and 29.5% and bulk density by 25.3 and 24.9%, 30.1 and 29.7%, and 28.2 and 27.6% over the control treatment and initial soil as an average across both seasons. Moreover, the soil pH went down by 7.9 and 8.8% for sulfuric acid, by 5.8 and 6.8% for sulfur, by 5.5 and 6.5% for RSC, and by 4.6 and 5.6% for gypsum compared to the control treatment and initial soil, respectively, value across the two growing seasons (Fig. 1). The tested soil organic/inorganic amendments significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased the soil Na+ content, SAR, and ESP in the saline-sodic soil. The highest decreases, as an average across both growing seasons, occurred with gypsum, RSC, FYM, or sulfur application, which were 14.2, 11.7, 9.1, and 8.3% for soil Na+ content; 14.9, 12.6, 10.4, and 8.7% for SAR; and 13.5, 11.5, 9.3, and 8.2% for ESP, respectively, compared with the lowest one recorded in the unamended soil (Fig. 2). The soil Na+ content, SAR, and ESP in the tested saline-sodic soil as affected by the organic/inorganic amendments can be coordinated in the following descending order: gypsum > RSC > FYM > sulfur > sulfuric acid > CSP > rice husk > control.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Effect of soil applied-organic/inorganic amendments on a electrical conductivity of soil extract (ECe), b reaction (pH), and c bulk density of the tested saline-sodic soil at the end of experiment. Each vertical bar refers to mean ± standard error based on three replicates and different letters for the different amendments in each season (2019 or 2020) indicate significant differences according to the Duncan test (p ≤ 0.05). RSC, rice straw compost; FYM, farmyard manure; CSP; calcium superphosphate

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Fig. 2
figure 2

Effect of soil applied-organic/inorganic amendments on a sodium (Na+) content, b sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and c exchangeable Na+ percentage (ESP) of the tested saline-sodic soil at the end of experiment. Each vertical bar refers to mean ± standard error based on three replicates and different letters for the different amendments in each season (2019 or 2020) indicate significant differences according to the Duncan test (p ≤ 0.05). RSC, rice straw compost; FYM, farmyard manure; CSP, calcium superphosphate

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Fig. 3
figure 3

Effect of soil applied-organic/inorganic amendments on microbiological properties, i.e., a microbial biomass carbon, b soil respiration rate, and c dehydrogenase activity of the tested saline-sodic soil at the end of experiment. Each vertical bar refers to mean ± standard error based on three replicates and different letters for the different amendments in each season (2019 or 2020) indicate significant differences according to the Duncan test (p ≤ 0.05). RSC, rice straw compost; FYM, farmyard manure; CSP, calcium superphosphate

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1.7. The microbial aspects (i.e., microbial biomass carbon, soil respiration rate, and dehydrogenase activity) of the tested soil in response to applied treatments are assessed and depicted in Table S5 and Fig. 3. All applied organic/inorganic amendments, except the sulfur, significantly (p ≤ 0.05) enhanced the microbial population of the amended soil over the unamended control soil. The organic amendments surpassed inorganic ones regarding microbial biomass carbon and soil respiration rate with the superiority of FYM by 224.7 and 383.8%, RSC by 196.6 and 318.9%, and rice husk by 157.5 and 327.0%, respectively, over the control treatment across both seasons and rice genotypes. However, the soil microbial activation-associated dehydrogenase activity under RSC followed by FYM, gypsum, CSP, and rice husk was 195.4, 179.7, 171.1, 165.8, and 147.6%, respectively, higher than the control treatment across both cropping seasons.

3.2 Rice Morpho-physiological Responses

Rice genotypes showed a considerable (p ≤ 0.05) variation in their studied morpho-physiological characteristics (i.e., SPADchlorophyll, RWC, LAI, and shoot dry weight) in both seasons (Table 1). EHR1 followed by Giza 179 showed the highest values of these parameters, while the lowest values were observed with Sakha 106 in both growing seasons. Averaged over the 2019 and 2020 seasons, EHR1 surpassed Giza 179 or Sakha 106 genotypes by 4.0 or 11.4%, 0.9 or 3.4%, 2.6 or 29.5%, and 3.2 or 24.0% for SPADchlorophyll, RWC, LAI, and shoot dry weight, respectively.

Table 1 Effect of genotype, soil organic/inorganic amendments, and their interaction on morpho-physiological parameters of rice plants grown under clayey saline-sodic soil conditions during the 2019 and 2020 seasons
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The morpho-physiological parameters across the tested rice genotypes significantly (p ≤ 0.05) varied with the soil-applied organic/inorganic amendments (Table 1) in the 2019 and 2020 seasons. Averaged across the two seasons, rice plants amended with RSC exhibited the best morpho-physiological parameters, followed by FYM and gypsum, overtaking the unamended control plants by 25.1%, 19.6%, and 13.3% for SPADchlorophyll and by 7.2%, 6.0%, and 5.1% for RWC, respectively. Moreover, without a significant difference among them in most cases, the CSP and sulfuric acid, in descending order, took the next rank behind RSC, FYM, and gypsum, outperforming control plants by 10.5% and 11.0% for SPADchlorophyll, by 4.9% and 2.6% for RWC, by 16.5% and 11.7% for LAI, and by 15% and 12.0% for shoot dry weight, respectively.

The GT × SA interaction significantly (p ≤ 0.05) affected the rice morpho-physiological parameters (Table 1). Generally, RSC was the effective soil amendment for enhancing rice morpho-physiological parameters with any of the tested rice genotypes. EHR1 × RSC interaction resulted in the highest rice morpho-physiological parameters, while the Sakha 106 × control interaction was the lowest one in the 2019 and 2020 growing seasons. On an average over the two studied seasons, the difference in SPAD chlorophyll, RWC, LAI, and shoot dry weight between the EHR1 × RSC and Sakha 106 × control interactions amounted to 37.0%, 12.3%, 62.8%, and 47.9%, respectively.

3.3 Catalase (CAT) Activity, Osmoprotectants, and Inorganic Electrolytes

Results presented in Table 2 and 3 showed significant variations among the tested rice genotypes regarding CAT enzyme activity and cellular osmoprotectants (i.e., NSCs and free proline), inorganic electrolytes (leaf K+ and Na+ content), and Na+/K+ ratio in both growing seasons. Under such stressful (i.e., saline-sodic) soil conditions, a significant genotypic difference in CAT activity, NSCs and free proline accumulation, leaf K+ and Na+ content, and Na+/K+ ratio was observed. EHR1 was the most efficient physiologically, since it exceeded Giza 179 and Sakha 106 genotypes, respectively, by 19.0 and 56.8% for CAT activity, 10.1 and 17.8% for NSCs, and 9.1 and 19.8% leaf K+ content across both seasons. In terms of the three genotypes, EHR1 genotype compared to Giza 179 and Sakha 106 possessed the lowest accumulation of free proline (604.8 µg g−1 FW by 22.7 and 14.7% decreases, respectively), leaf Na+ content (9.3 mg g−1 by 37.5 and 46.1% decreases, respectively), and Na+/K+ ratio (0.45 by 42.6 and 54.8% decreases, respectively) as an average over both seasons.

Table 2 Effect of genotype, soil organic/inorganic amendments and their interaction on catalase enzyme activity (CAT) and osmoprotectants (e.g., non-structural carbohydrate and free proline) accumulation of rice plants grown under clayey saline-sodic soil conditions during the 2019 and 2020 seasons
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Table 3 Effect of genotype, soil organic/inorganic amendments and their interaction on sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) ion accumulation and Na+/K+ ratio in rice plant leaves grown under clayey saline-sodic soil conditions during the 2019 and 2020 seasons
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Soil application of organic/inorganic amendments had an apparent positive effect on CAT activity, osmoprotectant accumulation, and K+ and Na+ uptake and their homeostasis as salinity tolerance indicators in rice plants (Table 2 and 3). RSC followed by CSP and gypsum amendments showed a significant improvement in CAT activity by 45.4, 35.6, and 34.4% and leaf K+ content by 27.5, 19.5, and 18.6% over the unamended control treatment, respectively. Moreover, RSC followed by gypsum, FYM, and CSP amendments, compared to control, significantly exhibited the maximum NSCs (238.7, 231.4, 228.1, and 226.2 mg g−1 DW by 16.9, 13.3, 11.7, and 10.8% increases, respectively). Across the two studied seasons, soil application of RSC or gypsum amendment succeeded in reducing rice plant Na+ uptake in terms of leaf Na+ content by 31.9 and 30.7% and subsequently boosting leaf K+ content resulting in a low Na+/K+ ratio by 46.8 and 39.9%, respectively, compared with control. Free proline accumulation in leaf tissue under RSC followed by FYM, gypsum, and CSP were 18.4, 15.9, 15.4, and 14.1%, respectively, lower than those of control plants over both growing seasons.

Results listed in Table 2 and 3 indicated that the GT × SA interaction had a significant effect on CAT activity, NSCs, free proline content, leaf Na+ and K+ content, and Na+/K+ ratio in both seasons. For the EHR1 × RSC interaction, the CAT activity, NSCs, and leaf K+ content were significantly increased by 98.9%, 45.2%, and 49.0%, respectively, while leaf Na+ content and Na+/K+ ratio were significantly decreased by 198.6% and 350.8%, compared to Sakha 106 × control as an average over both seasons. Furthermore, the Giza 179 × control-treated rice plants showed the highest leaf proline content (884.9 µg g−1 FW by 68.3%) as compared to EHR1 × RSC-treated rice plants, which possessed the lowest value (525.7 µg g−1 FW) across the two growing seasons.

3.4 Rice Yield and its Components

Rice yield and yield-related attributes (i.e., panicle no. m−2, panicle length, panicle weight, filled grains panicle−1, 1000-grain weight, and grain and biological yields) were significantly influenced by GT, SA, and their GT × SA interaction (all p ≤ 0.05, Table 4 and 5). Averaged across both seasons, EHR1 continues to confirm its superiority since it had the greatest panicle no. m−2, panicle length, panicle weight, filled grains panicle−1, grain yield, and biological yield, outperforming Giza 179 and Sakha 106 rice genotypes by 9.6 and 34.2%, 1.0 and 9.9%, 14.6 and 23.8%, 2.9 and 18.3%, 8.8 and 71.7%, and 11.0 and 66.3% increase, respectively. On the other hand, the average of 1000-grain weight over both seasons was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher in Sakha 106 than in EHR1 and Giza 179, with average increases of 6.4 and 5.8%, respectively.

Table 4 Effect of genotype, soil organic/inorganic amendments, and their interaction on the panicle characteristics of rice plants grown under clayey saline-sodic soil conditions during the 2019 and 2020 seasons
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Table 5 Effect of genotype, soil organic/inorganic amendments, and their interaction on 1000-grain weight and grain and biological yields of rice plants grown under clayey saline-sodic soil conditions during the 2019 and 2020 seasons
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Concerning the benefits of adding organic/inorganic amendments to the tested saline-sodic soil on the rice yield and its components, the results in Table 4 and 5 confirmed the positive effects of these soil amendments involving organic and inorganic ones on yield and its components in both seasons. On average across both seasons, compared to control, rice husk, RSC, FYM, gypsum, sulfur, CSP, and sulfuric acid significantly boosted, respectively, panicle no. m−2 by 16.1, 31.6, 21.8, 27.9, 29.4, 23.4, and 22.1%; panicle length by 3.5, 12.6, 8.8, 8.3, 5.9, 7.8, and 6.4%; panicle weight by 9.0, 12.5, 16.0, 13.6, 14.9, 19.1, and 10.7%; filled grains panicle−1 by 18.6, 22.1, 24.0, 24.8, 18.4, 27.7, and 17.4% (Table 4); and 1000-grain weight by 4.1, 7.0, 5.3, 6.5, 4.1, 8.2, and 5.8%, resulting in a significant improvement in grain yield by 14.9, 31.9, 15.8, 29.1, 25.7, 20.0, and 15.9% and biological yield by 9.8, 24.7, 14.2, 22.1, 19.6, 17.5, and 14.8% (Table 5). Interestingly, amending our saline-sodic soil with RSC, gypsum, or sulfur resulted in the highest increases, without a statistically significant difference among them, in rice grain or biological yield vs control soil. Likewise, RSC, gypsum, and CSP vs control soil exhibited the highest increase, without any statistically significant difference, regarding 1000-grain weight.

The GT × SA interaction application significantly influenced rice yield and yield-related attributes (Table 4 and 5) in both seasons. Averaged over the two experimental seasons, the best treatments were EHR1 interacted with RSC, FYM, gypsum, sulfur, CSP, or sulfuric acid, which significantly improved panicle no. m−2 by 60.5, 56.0, 55.6, 52.5, 56.3, and 50.3%; panicle length by 27.6, 23.5, 18.5, 22.1, 21.8, and 20.9%; panicle weight by 36.3, 38.7, 38.4, 42.7, 46.5, and 37.7%; and filled grains panicle−1 by 40.0, 46.0, 45.2, 35.4, 51.0, and 39.1% (Table 4), leading to a marked increase in grain yield by 141.2, 102.8, 135.1, 128.4, 122.7, and 116.9% and biological yield by 108.1, 89.1, 103.5, 97.0, 95.0, 93.1%, respectively, compared to Sakha 106 interacted with control. However, Sakha 106 interacted with the abovementioned organic/inorganic amendments recorded the highest 1000-grain weight as compared to the rest of the GT × SA interactions.

3.5 Pearson Correlation

Pearson’s correlation coefficients presented in the correlogram in Fig. 4a were computed to determine the association degree among rice plant measurements based on the data of interaction (rice genotype × soil amendment) across both seasons. Significant (positive or negative, p ≤ 0.05) or non-significant correlations were observed among all possible pairs of the studied rice crop traits under our study conditions. The greatest (positive and significant, p ≤ 0.05) correlations were found between grain yield and each of biological yield (0.993), followed by shoot dry weight (0.951), panicle no. m−2 (0.921), LAI (0.912), CAT (0.886), panicle length (0.856), filled grains panicle−1 (0.831), panicle weight (0.823), leaf K+ content (0.819), NSCs (0.812), RWC (0.732), and SPADchlorophyll (0.689), whereas the greatest (negative and significant, p ≤ 0.05) correlations were found between grain yield and each of leaf Na+/K+ ratio (− 0.854), followed by leaf Na+ content (− 0.827), and 1000-grain weight (− 0.504).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Pairwise comparisons between a rice measurements based on the data of rice genotype × soil amendment and b soil and rice measurements based on the soil amendment data shown in the correlogram are based on Pearson’s correlation coefficients. The circle color in the correlogram corresponds to the correlation coefficient, wherein a positive correlation coefficient is closer to 1 (purple end of the scale) and a negative correlation coefficient is closer to − 1 (red end of the scale). The circle size matches the significance level. GrY, grain yield; BioY, biological yield; LAI, leaf area index; SDWt, shoot dry weight; PL, panicle length; PN.m.sq., panicle no. m−2; CAT, catalase; FGs.panicle, filled grains panicle−1; PWt, panicle weight; RWC, relative water content; NSCs, non-structural carbohydrates; Na+ and K+, sodium and potassium ions, respectively; SPAD, relative chlorophyll content; 1000-GWt, 1000-grain weight; pH, soil reaction; ECe, electrical conductivity of soil extract; BD, soil bulk density; SAR, sodium adsorption ratio; ESP, exchangeable Na+ percentage; Fpro, free proline; soil.RR, soil respiration rate; soil.MBC, microbial biomass carbon; soil.DHA, soil dehydrogenase activity. Asterisk (*) refers to significant Person’s correlation at p ≤ 0.05. Values based on the average of 2019 and 2020 seasons

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Pearson correlation analysis based on the data of organic/inorganic soil amendments across both seasons was also used to show the association between soil physico-chemical and microbial properties and rice plant measurements as shown in the correlogram in Fig. 4b. Grain yield had strong (greater than 0.7) positive and significant (p ≤ 0.05) correlations with each of biological yield (0.980), followed by panicle no. m−2 (0.960), LAI (0.890), CAT (0.880), leaf K+ content (0.870), NSCs (0.860), shoot dry weight (0.850), panicle length (0.840), RWC (0.790), filled grains panicle−1 (0.760), 1000-grain weight (0.760), and dehydrogenase activity (0.750), while negatively correlated with each of ECe (− 0.950), followed by soil bulk density (− 0.940), leaf Na+/K+ ratio (− 0.910), ESP (− 0.910), leaf Na+ content (− 0.900), SAR (− 0.900), soil Na+ content (− 0.900), and free proline (− 0.820).

3.6 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

The PCA analysis was used to identify the best genotypes and understand the relationships between the studied traits of rice genotypes based on organic/inorganic soil amendments. Figure 5 displays the relationship between the first and second dimensions (Dim1 and Dim2) for the rice crop and soil traits influenced by the different genotypes across soil amendments. Out of all PC dimensions, the two first main dimensions (Dim1 and Dim2) had eigenvalues > 1 (Dim1 = 13 and Dim2 = 1.669), compared to the other dimensions that had lower eigenvalue < 1.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Principal component analysis for rice crop traits based on the data of rice genotype × soil amendment. GrY, grain yield; BioY, biological yield; LAI, leaf area index; SDWt, shoot dry weight; PL, panicle length; PN.m.sq., panicle no. m−2; CAT, catalase; FGs.panicle, filled grains panicle−1; PWt, panicle weight; RWC, relative water content; NSCs, non-structural carbohydrates; Na+ and K+, sodium and potassium ions, respectively; SPAD, relative chlorophyll content; 1000-GWt, 1000-grain weight; Fpro, free proline; T1, Sakha 106 × control; T2, Sakha 106 × rice husk; T3, Sakha 106 × RSC; T4, Sakha 106 × FYM; T5, Sakha 106 × gypsum; T6, Sakha 106 × sulfur; T7, Sakha 106 × CSP; T8, Sakha 106 × sulfuric acid; T9, Giza 179 × control; T10, Giza 179 × rice husk; T11, Giza 179 × RSC; T12, Giza 179 × FYM; T13, Giza 179 × gypsum; T14, Giza 179 × sulfur; T15, Giza 179 × CSP; T16, Giza 179 × sulfuric acid; T17, EHR1 × control; T18, EHR1 × rice husk; T19, EHR1 × RSC; T20, EHR1 × FYM; T21, EHR1 × gypsum; T22, EHR1 × sulfur; T23, EHR1 × CSP; T24, EHR1 × sulfuric acid. RSC, rice straw compost; FYM, farmyard manure; CSP, calcium superphosphate; Dim1 and Dim2, dimensions 1 and 2, respectively; Col., color. Values based on the average of 2019 and 2020 seasons

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In the first two dimensions, positive loadings were observed for most rice traits under this study. Dim1 had more genotypes and organic/inorganic soil amendments compared to Dim2. Both two dimensions explained 86.3% of the total variables across all genotypes and soil amendments (76.4% of the variance explained by Dim1 and 9.9% by Dim2). Dim1 had a high positive correlation with all studied traits, except free proline, leaf Na+ content, leaf Na+/K+ ratio, and 1000-grain weight. However, Dim2 identified a positive association with all studied traits, except SPADchlorophyll, RWC, leaf K+ content, shoot dry weight, and 1000-grain weight (Table S6). As a result, Dim1 and Dim2 can be used as the basis for evaluating the genotypes and soil amendments as well as the relationships between investigated traits in this study.

The contribution of genotypes and organic/inorganic soil amendments revealed a sharp angle among most studied traits, demonstrating a positive correlation among these traits; however, the degree and consistency of this correlation vary depending on the trait. For example, highly positive contributions were observed between grain yield and biological yield, shoot dry weight, LAI, filled grains panicle−1, CAT, and panicle no. m−2. While a negative association between the traits under study is indicated by the obtuse angles between them, but they differed in their degree and consistency in quantity. For example, NSCs, shoot dry weight, and RWC were negatively associated with leaf Na+ content, leaf Na+/K+ ratio, and free proline content (Fig. 5).

3.7 Overall and Economic Evaluations

The results of the economic evaluation in Table 6 indicated that the expenses of production and treatment cost were higher in 2020 than in 2019 with a slight increase in the price of the main product. So, the net return decreased in the 2020 season. It can be noticed that soil treated with RSC produced, as an average of both seasons, the highest values of net return (US$ 904.27 ha−1) and changes in total return (+ 31.9%) compared to the untreated soil. Therefore, treated soil with RSC may be preferred as the most cost-effective amendment in the saline-sodic soil.

Table 6 Economic evaluation of soil organic/inorganic amendments for rice plants grown under clayey saline-sodic soil conditions during the 2019 and 2020 seasons
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Considering all the overall assessments performed, including morpho-physiological responses, CAT activity, osmoprotectants, inorganic electrolytes, and rice yield and its components, the response to the addition of RSC to soil always surpassed the other amendments or was the best of all of them. Based on the number of times each treatment resulted in a plant response greater than the unamended control, Fig. 6 offers an attempt to summarize the overall effectiveness of the tested soil amendments. It was found that the application of RSC resulted in affirmative responses greater than the control on 72 occasions for some of the studied attributes, proving beyond a doubt that it was the treatment that achieved the best overall plant performance. Moreover, the gypsum, CSP, sulfur, FYM, and sulfuric acid amendments came after RSC, having 59, 53, 48, 45, and 40 positive response attributes, respectively, outperforming the control. In summary, the RSC was the sole organic amendment whose effect was not exceeded by any of the other amendments and which outperformed the control in most of the variables.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Overall performance of the applied amendments based on the average rice cultivars during both seasons

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4 Discussion

The experimental soils, for both studied seasons, are categorized as saline-sodic clayey and have a relatively low organic matter content and elevated pH, ECe, ESP, and SAR levels. These undesirable properties make it degraded and either much less or non-productive as it possesses poor hydro-physico-chemical attributes (Ahmad et al. 2016), owing to higher clay dispersion and compactness, poor structural quality, limited air- or water-filled pores, and weakened hydraulic conductivity (Sundha et al. 2020). To maintain higher crop productivity cultivated in saline-sodic soil, amending it with organic or inorganic soil amendments (Pavani and Shanmugam 2019) along with selecting a high-yielding genotype are necessary agronomic practices, particularly for arid-land agriculture.

All the tested soil amendments, particularly RSC and gypsum, caused positive effects on soil properties by reducing ECe, soil Na+ content, SAR, ESP, and simultaneously decreased bulk density compared to the control treatment and initial value in both seasons. The RSC as a soil organic ameliorant decreased the exchangeable Na+ content in soil by increasing cation exchange capacity and exchangeable Ca2+, Mg+2, and K+ cations on the soil surface. Therefore, the addition of RSC-limited soil Na+ content may adsorb exchangeable Na+ as sodium humates or expelled it away from the root/rhizosphere zone (Yu et al. 2015). A reduction in SAR and ESP levels when our degraded saline-sodic soil received RSC could be attributed to its effective role as an organic ameliorant in enhancing soil microbial activity and hastening soil organic matter decomposition rate (Dash et al. 2019). This might highlight how important to provide organic amendments to boost soil fertility. Lower soil bulk density also may help in reducing soil Na+ content by modulating soil structure, thus improving water-stable aggregates and soil drainage system (Yu et al. 2014). Moreover, the efficacy of RSC addition in amending the saline-sodic soil could be attributed to the considerable HCO3− amounts originated during the reaction of RSC-released free organic acids with CaCO3, resulting in an increase in Ca2+ in soil complexes and enriched exchangeable Na+ displacement from soil exchange sites (Tazeh et al. 2013) and thus promoting a more drop-in ECe, SAR, and ESP (Yahya et al. 2022) as observed in our study (Figs. 1 and 2). The soil pH was significantly reduced due to the soil amendment application and the reduction was more pronounced for sulfur or sulfuric acid without a statistically significant difference from those of gypsum and RSC in both seasons. These findings are in conformity with Stamford et al. (2015), who reported a similar finding in their experiments for comparing the application of sulfur or gypsum on saline-sodic soil in a semi-arid region. A notable lower soil pH due to sulfur application is probably due to the sulfuric acid-generated acidic effect produced by the different sulfur-oxidizing bacteria species present in the soil (Nguyen et al. 2022). The direct acidifying effect of sulfuric acid as an inorganic soil amendment is probably behind the considerably reduced pH level of the tested saline-sodic soil as confirmed by Ding et al. (2021).

A significant variation was observed among the tested rice genotypes in their growth performance. The differences in their dry matter production could be attributed to their differences in chlorophyll content and tissue water status expressed as SPADchlorophyll and RWC, respectively, and LAI in this study (Table 3; Hariadi et al. 2015; El Sherbiny et al. 2022). This was expected because of the differences among these genotypes are highly reliant and dependent on their genetic background. The seedling vigor growth in rice genotypes, especially hybrids, and their high ability for salinity tolerance may enable them to grow healthy and produce high crop productivities under such stressed conditions (Hariadi et al. 2015; Zhao et al 2020). EHR1 and Giza 179 showed well physio-biochemical performance about salinity tolerance mechanisms since they exhibited a high affinity of ion selectivity with a low cytosolic Na+/K+ ratio (Table 5), maintenance high water status, an effective antioxidative enzyme (i.e., CAT, Table 4), and reasonable regulation of stomatal conductance to CO2 diffusion (Abd El-Mageed et al. 2021; El- Abd El-Mageed et al. 2022). Furthermore, EHR1 and Giza 179 rice plants had an effective osmoregulation system under salt stress since they accumulated a high free proline amount as an organic osmoprotectant in plant cells (Al Hinai et al. 2022). Interestingly, EHR1 and Giza 179 possessed the highest non-structural carbohydrates, ensuring their higher photosynthesis rate under salt stress of our experimental conditions (Irakoze et al. 2022). Rice genotypes also had great significant variation in their yields in terms of grain and biological yields in favor of EHR1 in both seasons. The excellency of EHR1 in yield and its attributes under such stress conditions is mainly due to its higher growth heterosis, which enables it to possess a higher LAI and leaf photosynthetic chlorophyll pigments (Zhang et al. 2009; Zayed et al. 2014), resulting in high productivity as shown in the current study (Table 3, 6, and 7). Being a hybrid genotype, the EHR1’s plants showed high cellular antioxidant activity, indicating their ability to scavenge the free radicals and/or reactive oxygen species produced during metabolism under salt stress (Kaur et al. 2016), affecting also negatively growth and yield. Under salt stress conditions, hybrid rice plants possess healthier tissue and higher photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll with more plastidial carbohydrate metabolism, which is reflected in grain yield components (e.g., panicle no. m−2, panicle length, panicle weight, and filled grains panicle−1), relieving sterility induced by salt stress (Moe et al. 2019; Bhatt et al. 2020).

Application of organic and inorganic soil amendments enhances rice plant’s adaptation to soil salinity stress with varying degrees in this study. The physico-chemical and nutritional characteristics of the saline-sodic soil are reinforced by these amendments, which lessen the saline-sodic soil stressors that lower rice crop yields (Table 6 and 7). Among all the studied soil amendments, the application of RSC as an organic conditioner was more effective than control in improving rice crop performance due to its favorable effects on morpho-physiological and biochemical traits, Na+/K+ homoeostasis, and yield in harmony with Lakhdar et al. (2009), Day et al. (2018), and Shaaban et al. (2023a, b, c).

The pre-eminence of compost derived from rice straw over other amendments was also recently confirmed by Litardo et al. (2022) for the growth and yield of rice grown in salt-affected soil, pointing it out as the best soil amendment for such soil may be due to enhances the availability of soil nutrients for plants (Shaaban et al. 2023a, b, c). Biologically, compost addition enriches plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (Zhang et al. 2022), which contributes to remediating the saline soil by activation of soil microbiologic properties (Youssef et al. 2023) such as soil microbial respiration and soil enzymatic activities (Xie et al. 2021). Under saline-sodic conditions, organic acids from microbial decomposition and humic acid from compost can better release more phosphate ions and enhance P bioavailability (Bhowmick et al. 2020; Abou Tahoun et al. 2022; Mekdad et al. 2022). These acids chelate the cations bound to P through their carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. In addition, the pH decrease derived from the release of organic acids leads to the conversion of PO43− as an unavailable P source into HPO42− and H2PO4− as an available P source to plants (Castagno et al. 2021; Meena et al. 2022; Shaaban et al. 2023b).

In this concern, the addition of sulfur to saline-sodic soil tested enhanced the uptake of P, K+, and Zn2+ via plant root system due to its synergistic effect, which lead to an increase in rice production and improvement of its characteristics by reducing the soil pH, improving its structure, increasing the availability of nutrients, and enhancing its efficiency (Zayed et al. 2017). It should be noted that the increase vegetative growth of rice grown in treated soil with gypsum and sulfur compared to untreated soil can be explained by the ameliorative role of gypsum and sulfur in mitigating the harmful effects of salinity and sodium by substituting Na+ from the site of exchange; hence, after the leaching of Na+ from the root zone, the physical properties of the soil will improve, which leads to more vegetative growth (Kheir et al. 2019).

Above all, the soil amendments improved rice’s ion selectivity and encouraged plants to uptake more potassium versus sodium. Ion uptake and compartmentalization are crucial for normal growth under salt stress because the stress disturbs ion homeostasis. Salt accumulation inside the cytoplasm of plant cells might be restricted the enzyme activities and endogenous hormones resulting in poor growth (Tavakkoli et al. 2011; Zayed et al. 2014). Amendment application can be reclaimed saline soils by washing with an excess of water that can leach and remove the soluble salts from the root zone (Iqbal 2018). Also, the addition of soil amendments increased the soil nutrient availability via decreased soil pH which reflects the increase in soil nutrients. Consequently, a high net assimilation rate produces more fertile panicle and grain and heavy panicle and grain weight (Singh et al. 2018). Gypsum and rice straw compost application showed the lowest soil ECe, bulk density, ASR, and ESP values leading to improvement in chemical and physical properties (Singh et al. 2018). In this context, recycling rice straw material into productive and environmentally beneficial (Devi et al. 2017; El-Sayed et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2021). It can also lower long-term soil maintenance costs (He et al. 2023). RSC could conserve water due to its ability to retain and efficiently transfer water, which helps rice plants to be more tolerant to abiotic stresses (Devi et al. 2017; El-Sayed et al. 2019; He et al. 2023; Zhang et al. 2023). Gypsum also had a high calcium concentration which attributed to the improvement in the yield and nutrient content of the crop due to the displacement of sodium with calcium and the increase in the crop’s nutrient utilization efficiency (Bello 2012). Reducing soil pH values by soil amendments ensures more nutrient availability, such as Ca2+, which might remove a significant Na+ from soil particles (Mahmoud et al. 2009).

Thus, this study confirmed that adding RSC could reduce the harmful effect of salinity on one side and may increase nitrogen availability in saline paddy soil on the other side. Reducing bulk density and soil pH might boost Ca2+ release, which induced more sodium removal from soil particles resulted in low Na+. The improved biological properties of soil are regarded to be direct markers of the improvement of soil fertility resulting from the adding organic matter. But the low osmotic potential generated by the high salt content in the soil solution lowers water availability to microflora and may suck water out of the cells leading to low respiration rates at high salinity. Basically, microorganisms may swiftly react to decreased ECe in the presence of freely accessible carbon consisted within organic matter (Yan and Marschner 2013; He et al. 2023; Zhang et al. 2023). On the other hand, compost addition improves saline soil mineralization with microflora, increasing CO2 release and, as a result, soil aeration, likely due to a stimulation of their enzymatic activities such as hydrogenase enzymes (Lakhdar et al. 2009). Also, the incorporation of organic manure, including compost, into soils significantly stimulates soil microbial biomass and activity, due to the high quantities of readily utilizable energy sources introduced (Litardo et al. 2022).

Principal components analysis (PCA) is a powerful tool in modern data analysis because it is a well-known multivariate statistical technique used to determine the minimum number of components, which can explain the maximum variance from total variance and to rank genotypes based on PC scores (Gour et al. 2017). In this study (Fig. 5), Dim1 and Dim2 can be used as the basis for evaluating the genotypes and soil amendments as well as the relationships between investigated traits in this study (Hairmansis et al. 2013); however, the degree and consistency of this correlation vary depending on the trait. In other studies of rice, Dim1 contributed the highest variance proportion with a value of 96.5% (Bii et al. 2020), 58.8% (Laraswati et al. 2021), 57.7% (Khan et al. 2022), 51.1% (Ahmad et al. 2022), 35.8% (Tejaswini et al. 2018), 18.7% (Gour et al. 2017), and 16.0% (Tiwari et al. 2022) of the total variability. From these results, we could be suggested that analyzed variables by PCA which contribute the highest of the total variance could be manipulated during improve plant growth and increase the sustainable productivity of rice in Egypt. Generally, all analyzed variables by PCA indicate EHR1 interacted with RSC, FYM, gypsum, CSP, or sulfuric positively correlated with grain yield traits and with morpho-physiological traits, catalase activity, osmoprotectants, and inorganic electrolytes of rice genotype × soil amendment grown in clayey saline-sodic soil.

5 Conclusions

Regardless of genotypes, saline-sodic soil stress adversely affected rice performance and productivity. The tested rice genotypes, namely Sakha 106, Giza 179, and Egyptian hybrid rice 1, showed saline-sodic soil stress tolerance in varying degrees, with Sakha 106 being the least and Egyptian hybrid rice 1 being the most tolerant. The alone addition of any of the tested organic or inorganic amendments to the experimental saline-sodic soil improved its physico-chemical and microbial characteristics. Gypsum, sulfur, and rice straw compost were more efficient amendments in improving soil reaction, exchangeable sodium percentage, bulk density, electrical conductivity, and sodium content than the unamended control. The soil quality amelioration due to soil application of gypsum, sulfur, or rice straw compost interacted with Egyptian hybrid rice 1 (EHR1) could result in the improvement of morpho-physio-biochemical attributes and plant salt tolerance (e.g., Na+, K+, and Na+/K+ ratio in leaf tissue) and crop productivity (i.e., grain yield by 135.1, 128.4, or 141.2% and biological yield by 103.5, 97.0, or 108.1%, respectively) compared with the unamended control. Hence, in the absence of an appropriate inorganic amendment (e.g., gypsum or sulfur) to remediate saline-sodic soils, the application of organic amendment (e.g., rice straw compost) stands out to be a potential and hopeful technology to decrease salinity/sodicity stress and minimize environmental pollution brought about by extensive in-situ rice straw burning in Egypt. The current study conclusively appointed the selection of a salt-tolerant rice cultivar with soil addition of rice straw compost as an organic amendment can be used as a safe alternative to chemical amendment in the saline-sodic irrigated soil, being rice straw is a huge on-farm rice crop residues annually and often disposed of by in-farm burning.