Abstract
This study investigates effects of compositional variations and processing parameters such as ultrasonication time, carbon nanotube (CNT) content, and functionalization of CNT on the rheological, electrical, mechanical, and viscoelastic properties of epoxy-based composites filled with carbon nanomaterials. Expanded graphite (EG) was also used as a filler material into epoxy matrix to understand the effect of geometric features of carbon filler on the physical properties of epoxy. The effect of the void content and the agglomeration size with respect to CNT content, dispersion level, functionalization and the surface area on the composite properties has been investigated. Percolation threshold of CNT was found to be 0.1 wt% based on both rheological analysis and electrical conductivity measurements. High power and long-time ultrasonication have been found to have a detrimental effect on both the electrical and flexural properties due to breaking in CNT lengths. The electrical conductivity of composites was enhanced with the higher CNT loading but yielded bigger agglomerations. Computer tomography (CT) images were taken to visualize the void content of epoxy nanocomposites. ImageJ program was implemented to determine the void percentage from the CT images. Increase in resin viscosity resulted in higher void content in composites. Both the void content and the agglomerates possessed a negative impact on the mechanical and viscoelastic properties. EG-filled nanocomposites exhibited lower electrical conductivity than both the pristine CNT and functionalized CNT (f-CNT) reinforced epoxy nanocomposites. Three-point bending tests revealed that all type of nanoparticles (CNT, f-CNT, and EG) increased the flexural strength and strain compared to the neat epoxy.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Al-Saleh MH, Sundararaj U (2011) Review of the mechanical properties of carbon nanofiber/polymer composites. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 42:2126–2142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2011.08.005
Okoro CU, Hossain MK, Hosur MV, Jeelani S (2011) Mechanical characterization of XD-grade carbon nanotube/epon 862 processed by dual phase dispersion technique. J Eng Mater Technol Trans ASME 133:24–27. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4004692
Bai JB, Allaoui A (2003) Effect of the length and the aggregate size of MWNTs on the improvement efficiency of the mechanical and electrical properties of nanocomposites—experimental investigation. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 34:689–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-835X(03)00140-4
Montazeri A, Javadpour J, Khavandi A, Tcharkhtchi A, Mohajeri A (2010) Mechanical properties of multi-walled carbon nanotube/epoxy composites. Mater Design 31:4202–4208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2010.04.018
Hülagü B, Acar V, Aydın MR, Aydın OA, Gök S, Ünal HY et al (2021) Experimental modal analysis of graphene nanoparticle-reinforced adhesively bonded double strap joints. J Adhes 97:1107–1135. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218464.2020.1734793
Wang Z, Soutis C, Gresil M (2021) Fracture toughness of hybrid carbon fibre/epoxy enhanced by graphene and carbon nanotubes. Appl Compos Mater 28:1111–1125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10443-021-09906-x
Thostenson ET, Chou TW (2008) Carbon nanotube-based health monitoring of mechanically fastened composite joints. Compos Sci Technol 68:2557–2561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2008.05.016
Song YS, Youn JR (2005) Influence of dispersion states of carbon nanotubes on physical properties of epoxy nanocomposites. Carbon 43:1378–1385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2005.01.007
Li J, Ma PC, Chow WS, To CK, Tang BZ, Kim JK (2007) Correlations between percolation threshold, dispersion state, and aspect ratio of carbon nanotubes. Adv Funct Mater 17:3207–3215. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200700065
Wu N, Hu Q, Wei R, Mai X, Naik N, Pan D et al (2021) Review on the electromagnetic interference shielding properties of carbon based materials and their novel composites: recent progress, challenges and prospects. Carbon 176:88–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2021.01.124
Treacy MMJ, Ebbesen TW, Gibson JM (1996) Exceptionally high Young’s modulus observed for individual carbon nanotubes. Nature 381:678–680. https://doi.org/10.1038/381678a0
Yu MF, Lourie O, Dyer MJ, Moloni K, Kelly TF, Ruoff RS (2000) Strength and breaking mechanism of multiwalled carbon nanotubes under tensile load. Science 287:637–640. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5453.637
Ebbesen T, Ajayan P (1992) Large-scale synthesis of carbon nanotubes. Lett Nat 358:220–222
Maeng J, Jo G, Kim TW, Lee T (2006) Electrical transport properties of VO2 nanowire field effect transistors. Nano Brief Rep Rev 1:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1109/NMDC.2006.4388824
Ma PC, Siddiqui NA, Marom G, Kim JK (2010) Dispersion and functionalization of carbon nanotubes for polymer-based nanocomposites: a review. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 41:1345–1367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2010.07.003
Chakraborty AK, Plyhm T, Barbezat M, Necola A, Terrasi GP (2011) Carbon nanotube (CNT)-epoxy nanocomposites: a systematic investigation of CNT dispersion. J Nanoparticle Res 13:6493–6506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-011-0552-3
Thakur RK, Singh KK (2021) Influence of fillers on polymeric composite during conventional machining processes: a review. J Braz Soc Mech Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-021-02813-z
Nurazzi NM, Sabaruddin FA, Harussani MM, Kamarudin SH, Rayung M, Asyraf MRM et al (2021) Mechanical performance and applications of cnts reinforced polymer composites—a review. Nanomaterials. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11092186
Hirsch A, Vostrowsky O, Chemie O, Erlangen-nürnberg U (2005) Functionalization of carbon nanotubes, pp 193–237. https://doi.org/10.1007/b98169
Balasubramanian K, Burghard M (2005) Chemically functionalized carbon nanotubes. Small. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200400118
Sun YP, Fu K, Lin Y, Huang W (2002) Functionalized carbon nanotubes: properties and applications. Acc Chem Res. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar010160v
Kim YJ, Shin TS, Choi HD, Kwon JH, Chung YC, Yoon HG (2005) Electrical conductivity of chemically modified multiwalled carbon nanotube/epoxy composites. Carbon. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2004.08.015
Guadagno L, De Vivo B, Di Bartolomeo A, Lamberti P, Sorrentino A, Tucci V et al (2011) Effect of functionalization on the thermo-mechanical and electrical behavior of multi-wall carbon nanotube/epoxy composites. Carbon. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2011.01.017
Kathi J, Rhee K, Hee J (2009) Composites : part a effect of chemical functionalization of multi-walled carbon nanotubes with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane on mechanical and morphological properties of epoxy nanocomposites. Compos Part A 40:800–809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2009.04.001
Hameed A, Islam M, Ahmad I, Mahmood N, Saeed S, Javed H (2015) Thermal and mechanical properties of carbon nanotube/epoxy nanocomposites reinforced with pristine and functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Polym Compos. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.23097
Cha J, Kim J, Ryu S, Hong SH (2019) Comparison to mechanical properties of epoxy nanocomposites reinforced by functionalized carbon nanotubes and graphene nanoplatelets. Compos Part B Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.11.011
Liu Y, Rajadas A, Chattopadhyay A (2012) A biomimetic structural health monitoring approach using carbon nanotubes. Jom 64:802–807. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-012-0357-6
Kumar M, Bhowmik S, Balachandran M, Abraham M (2016) Effect of surface functionalization on mechanical properties and decomposition kinetics of high performance polyetherimide/MWCNT nano composites. Compos A 90:147–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2016.06.025
Kumar A, Sharma K, Rai A (2020) A review on the mechanical properties of polymer composites reinforced by carbon nanotubes and graphene. Carbon Lett. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42823-020-00161-x
Sánchez M, Campo M, Ureña A (2013) Effect of the carbon nanotube functionalization on flexural properties of multiscale carbon fiber / epoxy composites manufactured by VARIM. Compos Part B 45:1613–1619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2012.09.063
Kashfipour MA, Mehra N, Zhu J (2018) A review on the role of interface in mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of polymer composites. Adv Compos Hybrid Mater 1:415–439
Qian WM, Vahid MH, Sun YL, Heidari A, Barbaz-Isfahani R, Saber-Samandari S et al (2021) Investigation on the effect of functionalization of single-walled carbon nanotubes on the mechanical properties of epoxy glass composites: experimental and molecular dynamics simulation. J Mater Res Technol 12:1931–1945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.03.104
Roy S, Petrova RS, Mitra S (2018) Effect of carbon nanotube (CNT) functionalization in epoxy-CNT composites. Nanotechnol Rev 7:475–485
Lee SH, Cho E, Jeon SH, Youn JR (2007) Rheological and electrical properties of polypropylene composites containing functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes and compatibilizers. Carbon 45:2810–2822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2007.08.042
Sandler JKW, Kirk JE, Kinloch IA, Shaffer MSP, Windle AH (2003) Ultra-low electrical percolation threshold in carbon-nanotube-epoxy composites. Polymer 44:5893–5899. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-3861(03)00539-1
Bartholome C, Miaudet P, Derré A, Maugey M, Roubeau O, Zakri C et al (2008) Influence of surface functionalization on the thermal and electrical properties of nanotube—PVA composites. Compos Sci Technol 68:2568–2573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2008.05.021
Costa P, Silva J, Ansón-casaos A, Martinez MT, Abad MJ, Viana J et al (2014) Effect of carbon nanotube type and functionalization on the electrical, thermal, mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube/styrene—butadiene—styrene composites for large strain sensor applications. Compos Part B 61:136–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.01.048
Smoleń P, Czujko T, Komorek Z, Grochala D, Rutkowska A, Osiewicz-Powęzka M (2021) Mechanical and electrical properties of epoxy composites modified by functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Materials. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14123325
Goudarzi R, Motlagh GH (2019) Heliyon The effect of graphite intercalated compound particle size and exfoliation temperature on porosity and macromolecular diffusion in expanded graphite. Heliyon 5:e02595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02595
Yasmin A, Luo J, Daniel IM (2006) Processing of expanded graphite reinforced polymer nanocomposites. Compos Sci Technol 66:1182–1189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2005.10.014
Wang L, Zhang L, Tian M (2012) Effect of expanded graphite (EG) dispersion on the mechanical and tribological properties of nitrile rubber / EG composites. Wear 276–277:85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2011.12.009
Murariu M, Laure A, Bonnaud L, Paint Y, Gallos A, Fontaine G et al (2010) The production and properties of polylactide composites filled with expanded graphite. Polym Degrad Stab 95:889–900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2009.12.019
Jia W, Tchoudakov R, Narkis M (2005) Performance of expanded graphite and expanded milled-graphite fillers in thermosetting resins. Polym Compos 26:526–533. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.20123
Wang P, Zhang J, Dong L, Sun C, Zhao X, Ruan Y et al (2017) Interlayer polymerization in chemically expanded graphite for preparation of highly conductive. Mech Strong Polym Compos Chem Mater 29:3412–3422. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b04734
Wei B, Yang S (2021) Polymer composites with expanded graphite network with superior thermal conductivity and electromagnetic interference shielding performance. Chem Eng J 404:126437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126437
Reis JML, Martins SA, da Costa Mattos HS (2020) Combination of temperature and electrical conductivity on semiconductor graphite/epoxy composites. J Braz Soc Mech Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-020-02487-z
Teplykh AE, Bogdanov SG, Dorofeev YA, Pirogov AN, Skryabin YN, Makotchenko VG et al (2006) Structural state of expanded graphite prepared from intercalation compounds. Crystallogr Rep 51:62–66. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063774506070108
Martone A, Formicola C, Giordano M, Zarrelli M (2010) Reinforcement efficiency of multi-walled carbon nanotube/epoxy nano composites. Compos Sci Technol 70:1154–1160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.03.001
Shojaeiarani J, Bajwa D, Holt G (2020) Sonication amplitude and processing time influence the cellulose nanocrystals morphology and dispersion. Nanocomposites 6:41–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/20550324.2019.1710974
Foundation A, Blaedel WJ, Wang J, Rochon AM, Gesser HD, Aubert JH et al (1996) Mechanical damage of carbon nanotubes by ultrasound. Carbon 34:814–816
Fu S, Chen Z, Hong S, Han CC (2009) The reduction of carbon nanotube (CNT) length during the manufacture of CNT/polymer composites and a method to simultaneously determine the resulting CNT and interfacial strengths. Carbon 47:3192–3200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2009.07.028
Erkens M, Cambré S, Flahaut E, Fossard F, Loiseau A, Wenseleers W (2021) Ultrasonication-induced extraction of inner shells from double-wall carbon nanotubes characterized via in situ spectroscopy after density gradient ultracentrifugation. Carbon 185:113–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2021.07.075
Carreau PJ, MacDonald IF, Bird RB (1968) A nonlinear viscoelastic model for polymer solutions and melts-II. Chem Eng Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(68)80024-7
Kasgoz A, Akin D, Ayten AI, Durmus A (2014) Effect of different types of carbon fillers on mechanical and rheological properties of cyclic olefin copolymer (COC) composites. Compos Part B Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.05.010
Durmus A, Kasgoz A, Macosko CW (2007) Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE)/clay nanocomposites. Part I: structural characterization and quantifying clay dispersion by melt rheology. Polymer. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2007.05.074
Loos MR, Coelho LAF, Pezzin SH, Amico SC (2008) Effect of carbon nanotubes addition on the mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy matrices. Mater Res 11:347–352. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-14392008000300019
Lau KT, Lu M, Lam CK, Cheung HY, Sheng FL, Li HL (2005) Thermal and mechanical properties of single-walled carbon nanotube bundle-reinforced epoxy nanocomposites: the role of solvent for nanotube dispersion. Compos Sci Technol 65:719–725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2004.10.005
Hong SG, Wu CS (1998) DSC and FTIR analysis of the curing behaviors of epoxy/DICY/solvent open systems. Thermochim Acta 316:167–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-6031(98)00356-6
Brancato V, Visco AM, Pistone A, Piperno A, Iannazzo D (2013) Effect of functional groups of multi-walled carbon nanotubes on the mechanical, thermal and electrical performance of epoxy resin based nanocomposites. J Compos Mater 47:3091–3103. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998312462431
Zhao Z, Yang Z, Hu Y, Li J, Fan X (2013) Multiple functionalization of multi-walled carbon nanotubes with carboxyl and amino groups. Appl Surf Sci 276:476–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.03.119
Liu H, Thostenson ET (2017) Conductive nanocomposites for multifunctional sensing applications. Compr Compos Mater II. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.10017-7
Haghgoo M, Ansari R, Hassanzadeh-Aghdam MK, Nankali M (2019) Analytical formulation for electrical conductivity and percolation threshold of epoxy multiscale nanocomposites reinforced with chopped carbon fibers and wavy carbon nanotubes considering tunneling resistivity. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105616
Martin CA, Sandler JKW, Shaffer MSP, Schwarz MK, Bauhofer W, Schulte K et al (2004) Formation of percolating networks in multi-wall carbon-nanotube-epoxy composites. Compos Sci Technol 64:2309–2316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2004.01.025
Shelimov KB, Esenaliev RO, Rinzler AG, Huffman CB, Smalley RE (1998) Purification of single-wall carbon nanotubes by ultrasonically assisted filtration. Chem Phys Lett 282:429–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2614(97)01265-7
Sandler J, Shaffer MSP, Prasse T, Bauhofer W, Schulte K, Windle AH (1999) Development of a dispersion process for carbon nanotubes in an epoxy matrix and the resulting electrical properties. Polymer 40:5967–5971. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-3861(99)00166-4
Huang YY, Terentjev EM (2012) Dispersion of carbon nanotubes: Mixing, sonication, stabilization, and composite properties. Polymers 4:275–295. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym4010275
Gojny FH, Wichmann MHG, Köpke U, Fiedler B, Schulte K (2004) Carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy-composites: enhanced stiffness and fracture toughness at low nanotube content. Compos Sci Technol 64:2363–2371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2004.04.002
Zhou Y, Pervin F, Lewis L, Jeelani S (2007) Experimental study on the thermal and mechanical properties of multi-walled carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy. Mater Sci Eng A 452–453:657–664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2006.11.066
Montazeri A, Montazeri N (2011) Viscoelastic and mechanical properties of multi walled carbon nanotube/epoxy composites with different nanotube content. Mater Des 32:2301–2307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2010.11.003
Her SC, Lin KY (2017) Dynamic mechanical analysis of carbon nanotube-reinforced nanocomposites. J Appl Biomater Funct Mater 15:S13–S18. https://doi.org/10.5301/jabfm.5000351
Prolongo SG, Gude MR, Ureña A (2009) Synthesis and characterisation of epoxy resins reinforced with carbon nanotubes and nanofibers. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 9:6181–6187. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2009.1554
Houshyar S, Shanks RA, Hodzic A (2005) The effect of fiber concentration on mechanical and thermal properties of fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites. J Appl Polym Sci 96:2260–2272. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.20874
Shen J, Huang W, Wu L, Hu Y, Ye M (2007) The reinforcement role of different amino-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes in epoxy nanocomposites. Compos Sci Technol 67:3041–3050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2007.04.025
Spinelli G, Lamberti P, Tucci V, Vertuccio L, Guadagno L (2018) Experimental and theoretical study on piezoresistive properties of a structural resin reinforced with carbon nanotubes for strain sensing and damage monitoring. Compos Part B Eng 145:90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.03.025
Goyat MS, Jaglan V, Tomar V, Louchaert G, Kumar A, Kumar K et al (2019) Superior thermomechanical and wetting properties of ultrasonic dual mode mixing assisted epoxy-CNT nanocomposites. High Perform Polym 31:32–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954008317749021
Funding
No funding was received for conducting this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Technical Editor: João Marciano Laredo dos Reis.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Turan, F., Guclu, M., Gurkan, K. et al. The effect of carbon nanotubes loading and processing parameters on the electrical, mechanical, and viscoelastic properties of epoxy-based composites. J Braz. Soc. Mech. Sci. Eng. 44, 93 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-022-03393-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-022-03393-2