Introduction

Research in early childhood education has emphasized the importance of learning with others, placing a central focus on the concept of group as fundamental to children’s experiences (Legget & Ford, 2016). Grouping children has been a longstanding practice globally, including Australia (Anning et al., 2009), initially intended to foster social benefits for children and facilitate workforce participation among mothers (Cumpston & Heinig, 1945). However, since the 1970s, there has been a significant shift towards enhancing the quality of early childhood experiences, with factors such as teacher–child ratio, group size and social interaction becoming crucial in curriculum development (Anning et al., 2009; Hunkin, 2019). Consequently, there is a heightened emphasis on children’s social experiences in developing high-quality programmes, including aspects such as membership, togetherness and a sense of belonging, highlighting the important role of group in children’s learning (Corsaro, 2014; Leggett & Ford, 2016). Moving beyond simple skill development, this broader perspective encapsulates a deeper understanding of children’s active participation and the cultivation of meaningful social connections. Notably, they are now recognised as essential indicators of group experiences and have been integrated into the criteria for assessing children’s learning outcomes within the Australian Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF) (Australian Government Department of Education/AGDE, 2022).

In spite of this, research into children’s group experiences has often been limited in scope, primarily focusing on the viewpoints of teachers and overlooking broader group dynamics beyond peer interactions (Guedes et al., 2020; Van Velsor, 2017). Group experiences are inherently complex, involving various aspects ranging from opportunities for collective play and activity organisation to socialization and community development (Aarts et al., 2016; Legget & Ford, 2016). Furthermore, ‘not all groups are learning groups’ (Mardell et al., 2012, p. 12), with Legget and Ford (2016) suggesting that a group can merely constitute a physical space without necessarily serving as a conductive learning environment. As Powell (2014) highlights, attempting to formulating an overarching definition for the diverse types of groups is difficult.

For this reason, in this research, ‘group’ is an open and situated term meaning any social context within preschool environments (Guo et al., 2021). We aim to understand group from a tri-partite lens, incorporating the perspectives of young children, parents and early childhood teachers. Specifically, the research addresses the question: how is group positioned in relation to children’s learning from the perspectives of children, teachers and parents?

The study is situated in Australia, where the significance of group in children’s learning is embedded in the EYLF (AGDE, 2022). The framework explicitly recognises the value of group experiences, aiming to ensure that children ‘feel accepted and affirm their group membership’ (p. 34). It also acknowledges the fundamental human need to connect with groups, setting an outcome to foster in children ‘a sense of connectedness to groups and communities and an understanding of their reciprocal rights and responsibilities as active and informed citizens’ (p. 39).

Despite the frequent mention of ‘group’ in policy guidelines, its definition is varied and vague within early childhood documents. In the EYLF, for example, the term group is mentioned 29 times, often accompanied by modifiers such as ‘cultural’, ‘social’, ‘small’, ‘large’, and ‘play’, along with references to ‘spaces’, ‘membership’, and ‘community’. However, its use in sentences, such as ‘children are viewed as individuals and as members of a group in the early childhood setting’ (AGDE, 2022, p. 65) offers little clarification of what group means. The term is treated as a common noun, with the assumption that readers inherently understand it. Yet, considering ‘the variety and complexity of ways in which children connect and participate with others’ (p. 38), clarification of the concept is necessary. A more nuanced exploration of ‘group’ would enable a richer understanding of children’s social experiences, aligning with the aspirations of the framework to nurture meaningful interactions among children.

The current research explores the position of group in early childhood contexts and how this may differ across various stakeholders—children, parents, teachers. It also focuses on how learning and teaching are enacted within groups. The aim is not to achieve a definitive account, but to garner perspectives on the concept and its potential to support children’s learning. We take the view that scholarly understandings may not do justice to children, parents and teachers’ positioning of the term. Therefore, it is significant that ‘group’ is constructed from the key stakeholders themselves as a way of ensuring grassroots involvement in research.

Conceptualising group in children’s learning

The criteria for literature selection in this research were based on three main factors: the publication timeframe, relevance to the research question, and the methodologies employed in the studies. Our goal was to include studies pertinent to the topic of children’s group learning, with a focus on publications from the past decade. In an established area of research, foundational concepts often remain stable over time, making literature from the last ten years a solid basis for understanding the current state of knowledge (Ketchen & Craighead, 2023). We also prioritised studies that provided empirical data to ensure the robustness of our knowledge base. Although the selection process was stringent, we recognised the potential value in including additional sources, including those based on non-empirical research, to present diverse perspectives.

It is widely acknowledged that the primary purpose of group is to bring people together for collective experiences (Schaik et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2019). Through these experiences, children not only develop social, cognitive, and language skills but also refine their abilities in problem-solving, communication, and perspective-taking (Eggum-Wilkens, 2014; Hedges & Cooper, 2016; Leggett & Ford, 2016; Lin et al., 2016; Schaik et al., 2018). From a developmental perspective, the impact and effectiveness of group learning are rooted in the individual developmental domains of children, as noted by pioneers like Piaget (1952) and Slavin (1995). The diverse and rapid developmental changes during early childhood mean that children of different ages display varied skills and abilities in group situations. For example, Howard et al. (2014) identified distinct behaviours between 19-month-olds and three-year-olds in their interactions with in-group and out-group members, pointing to how group experiences are influenced by children’s developmental stages and ages. Complementing this, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (1978/1995) provides an alternative and supportive theoretical framework, emphasising the critical role of social interactions in learning. This perspective focuses on how cultural tools, such as language, and the assistance of more knowledgeable individuals, are instrumental in mediating the learning process within group settings. It highlights the variability in skills and abilities among children across different group environments and emphasises the importance of social engagement and cultural practices in promoting learning experiences.

In early childhood education, teachers work with groups of children where each child forms an integral part of a collective. Schaik and colleagues (2018) highlight the important role of early childhood teachers in ‘group[ing] children and organis[ing] shared classroom and group activities’ (p. 903). Guiding teachers' decisions is the recognition that learning in group goes beyond individual abilities (Carter & Nutbrown, 2016). Common interests and the potential for collaboration influence teachers' inclination to organise groups for learning together. Specifically, a group serves as a point of convergence that advances the interests, knowledge, and potentials of each child.

The notion that group fosters membership and nurtures a sense of belonging in children is a recurrent theme in past studies (Guedes et al., 2020; Leggett & Ford, 2016). This idea aligns with sociological perspectives, especially reflected in Corsaro's conceptualisation of peer culture (2004) and Van Oers and Hännikäinen's notion of togetherness (2001), emphasizing how children are motivated to belong to a group because of their desire to stay together. Corsaro asserts that ‘preschoolers enjoy simply being and doing things together’ (2014, p. 730), suggesting that a sense of belonging naturally emerges from shared experiences. For him, children’s group represents a divergence of children's needs and adults' agendas, giving rise to distinctive activities that promote their evolving participation in society, sometimes resisting adult-defined structures. Through the lens of interpretive reproduction, Corsaro illustrates how children actively shape their groups, creating unique systems of meaning and establishing distinct forms of social organisation. Building on this perspective, Scholtz and Gilligan (2017) argue that group experiences are intimately linked to ’the transformative potential of the ways in which children and young people have reworked, reinterpreted, and subverted wider cultural meanings’ (p. 170).

Learning in groups notably facilitates the expression and negotiation of individuality within social contexts. Yuval-Davis (2011) points out that group experiences enable children to compare, evaluate and reflect on the similarities and differences between themselves and others. Castro (2004) emphasizes the significance of these processes in children's learning, particularly in shaping their understanding of individual and collective identities. Furthermore, Dunham et al. (2011) advocate for the importance of maintaining a balance between children’s sense of self and their awareness of others to cultivate positive group experiences.

In contemporary educational settings, informed by anthropological perspectives on childhood, each child is acknowledged as an agentic individual with distinct rights and needs (Montgomery, 2022). However, this recognition introduces a complex dynamic where children grapple with conflicting desires for both individuality and group affiliation, posing a challenging aspect of their development (Hogg et al., 2017). Teachers, too, find themselves in a delicate balance, navigating between meeting individual interests and accommodating group goals because the promotion of inclusivity may inadvertently diminish uniqueness, potentially eroding individual distinctions (Montgomery, 2022). This balancing expectation also extends to parents, as demonstrated in Sollars’ study (2023), where the interplay between children’s individual and social development is emphasised for their well-being and the achievement of optimal learning outcomes (Sollars, 2023). Sollars' study reveals that, for most parents, the priority is to ensure that promoting group cohesion does not overshadow children's personal development.

The current research

A tri-partite lens

Understanding the position of group in children's learning requires sensitivity to the contextual settings in which group dynamics unfold, as well as consideration of the beliefs and values that influence children’s group experiences. In early childhood environments, three distinct sets of beliefs and values are particularly important in children’s learning: those held by the children themselves, the perspectives held by their parents, and the viewpoints and experiences of teachers (Carter & Nutbrown, 2016; Williams et al., 2019).

Building upon the groundwork laid by Guo et al. (2020) in their study on a related topic in Chinese preschools, our research adopts a tripartite approach to investigate how the concept of group in children's learning is perceived by three key stakeholders: children, parents, and teachers. We place significant emphasis on the voices of children, recognizing that ‘children can offer unique perspectives on situations within their early years settings’ (Shaw, 2017, p. 79).

This tripartite perspective proves to be a potent and insightful approach, able to shed light on the complexity of preschool contexts, ‘revealing tensions that arise from the interplay of value systems, the individual roles of children, and the social conditions of the learning environment’ (Guo et al., 2020, p. 335). This approach not only serves as a source of inspiration but also equips researchers with the methods to attain a nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the research topic.

In this research, we aim to explore both commonalities and differences within and between different perspectives. As Richardson et al. (2007) assert, the tripartite approach does not solely focus on answering questions but aims to gather wide, rich, and deep perspectives from different parties. Through this approach, we seek to gain valuable insights into the complex aspects of group learning in children, exploring any potential tensions that may arise in its implementation.

Context and participants

The study, conducted in metropolitan Melbourne, Australia, utilized a stratified purposeful sampling technique across three preschools. As noted by Palinkas et al. (2015), this method is useful for capturing representative examples that reflect major variations. The selected preschools, chosen from different socio-economic locations, aimed to provide a broader perspective. Each service provided 15 h of sessional preschool per week, with varying approaches. One preschool had rotational sessions, where three smaller groups of children interacted at different times during the week, resulting in different compositions of the larger group each day. Another preschool had three groups of children operating in separate rooms but sharing the outdoor space, while the third preschool followed a more traditional programme with two groups of children attending at different times throughout the week. The preschools were all stand-alone services managed by parent committees.

A total of 78 participants, including 6 preschool teachers, 48 parents and 24 children aged between 4 and 5 years participated in this study. They were equally recruited from the three preschools with 2 teachers, 16 parents and 8 children from each service. The female teacher participants, aged between 30 and 50 years, with nine and over 30 years of experience, were invited through a teacher network group. Children were chosen by the teachers based on gender balance and their willingness and ability to participate. Referring to Yuval-Davis's (2011) concept of ‘social location’, the term ‘group’ holds distinct connotations for individuals of different genders. This consideration supports the inclusion of an equal number of boys and girls among the children. Parent participants comprised 43 mothers and 5 fathers from 41 families. They volunteered to participate after receiving information from the preschools. Parents came from diverse sociocultural and economic backgrounds, including educated professionals and stay-at-home mothers.

Ethical clearance was granted by the Human Ethics Advisory Group at the Faculty within which the researchers are affiliated, along with approval to conduct the study given by the State Department of Education. Written permission was obtained from the preschools involved. All the participants were informed about the voluntary nature of participation and their rights and obligations. Children’s participation was sought through their parents’ consent and their own assent.

Data collection

The research employed a qualitative approach, gathering data through individual teacher interviews, parents’ questionnaires and children’s focus groups. The tri-partite design necessitated diverse perspectives, leading to the integration of three distinct sets of data sources. The choice of methods was influenced by their convenience and appropriateness to participants and the richness of data they could provide. For example, busy parents were provided with a questionnaire for flexible completion; teachers were interviewed at their convenience, and children participated in a focus group that resembled a discussion situation familiar to them. By carefully selecting the methods we aligned ourselves with other qualitative researchers who recognise the importance of situating data collection within participants’ direct experiences (Shaw, 2017). All interviews were audio recorded and professionally transcribed.

Teachers’ interview

Semi-structured individual interviews with the teachers, each lasting an hour, were chosen for their alignment with teachers’ availability and the capacity of this method for ‘exploring any potentially interesting avenues which might open up’ (Simpson et al., 2014, p. 101). These interviews aimed to explore curriculum and teaching practice concerning children’s learning in groups. Teachers were encouraged to discuss the aspects they valued in children’s group experiences and share examples (see Appendix 1). We provided them with the opportunity to lead the direction of the conversations and express their perspectives freely.

Parents’ questionnaire

The parent questionnaire, detailed in Appendix 2, comprised 11 open-ended items, aiming to capture values and expectations about children’s group experiences. The questions covered various aspects such as children’s learning in preschools, parents’ understandings of individual and group learning in early childhood education, and their expectations and perceptions of their children’s group experiences. Parents also responded to questions on issues and difficulties they saw as related to children’s learning in group situations.

Children’s focus group

The focus group schedule was designed to explore children’s understanding of group learning, their experiences of learning with others, and any barriers they experienced in group settings (see Appendix 3). To gain a more comprehensive view of children’s group experiences, we also observed their interactions and behaviours during the focus groups.

Facilitated by Author 3, a former preschool teacher skilled in using group discussions with children, each focus group, comprised six children, took place in their kindergarten. A classroom teacher who knew the children well and approved the focus group questions, was also present. Prior to data collection, the researcher spent time with the children in the preschool to familiarize them with her presence. The sessions lasted approximately 20–30 min and were audio recorded and documented.

To ensure that the discussions were engaging and productive, a conversational approach was employed. The session began by providing children with pens and paper to draw a group activity, which was used as a starting point for the conversations. The researcher and classroom teacher used verbal and non-verbal cues to stimulate children’s engagement, with the teacher assisting in question clarification and attentively observing each child’s behaviours. Throughout the discussions, the researcher was conscious of talking with the children in the ‘least adult kind of way’ (Jensen, 2018, p. 505), and spoke using uncomplicated language to facilitate the children’s understanding and keep the conversations flowing.

Data analysis

Data analysis unfolded as a dynamic, open-ended process. Departing from the positivist paradigm, which emphasized observable and quantifiable data (Merriam, 1998), we adopted interpretive and constructivist approaches that valued the construction and understanding of meanings pertinent to the research question. Central to our analysis was the principle of multiplex epistemologies (Phoenix & Pattynama, 2006), which guided us in identifying and integrating diverse perspectives of the participants. Further, our role as researchers was integral to the process as we actively engaged in knowledge construction. Echoing Merriam’s (1998) assertion that individuals hold their own interpretations, we continually assessed our understandings through reflections and discussions. Thus, the data analysis did not follow a linear path but rather an ongoing trajectory of meaning making.

This interpretive and constructive orientation led to the adoption of thematic analysis, allowing us to identify the recurring patterns and underlying meanings in participants' accounts while also facilitating the reflexive construction of researchers' interpretations (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Guided by existing conceptualisations of children’s learning in groups, attention was directed to how children, parents and teachers’ perspectives aligned to aspects such as ‘skill acquisition’, ‘individual development’ ‘togetherness’, ‘belonging’, ‘social support’, and the interplay between self and others. We also explored the definitions of group from their data.

The process of data analysis involved serval steps. Initially, we conducted multiple readings of the data to identify significant and relevant ideas. Subsequently, we generated initial codes based on these ideas, using a ‘start list of constructs’ as a guide, as suggested by Lasky (2005, p. 904). Moving forward, we categorized the codes by actively searching for pertinent evidence and engaged in negotiations to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the identified categories, following the approach outlined by Merriam (1998). In cases where differences in codes occurred, the researchers reviewed the data and reached a final decision. The codes were then analysed together and primary categorizes were created to represent the general groups of findings. These categories were organised under subheadings that reflected key aspects of the research focus. Each category included data excerpt and notes that supported the data. For example, one of the categories that was identified from our analysis in the children’s data was ‘developing social skills’. The codes that linked to this included ‘sharing and taking turns’ and ‘being nice to others’. One quotation that reflected the code of ‘being nice to others’ was ‘I don’t do attitudes. You be naughty if you smack people and hit people’.

After the categorizations of each dataset, connections between them were explored based on the original transcripts and questionnaire responses to check interpretations against what was said. We have also analysed how the perspectives and experiences of the three groups overlapped and differed. For example, we found that parents primarily emphasised extending their child’s individual learning. In contrast, teachers focused more on fostering the development of children as integral members of the overall environment while children wanted to build a sense of togetherness. By exploring these connections, we were able to gain a more nuanced understanding of the data and identify key themes across the groups. During the process, we emphasised both semantic themes evident in the transcriptions and latent themes that identified the underlying beliefs expressed by participants (Braun & Clarke, 2006). For instance, certain themes were directly provided by participants (‘although that's the overarching theme for a group, our individual plan is to then look at each child’), while others were inferred through our analysis (‘self-other relationship’).

Findings

Participants’ perspectives built a shared narrative regarding the position of group in children’s learning, while also articulating distinctive opinions. The findings are summarized in Table 1, which categorises the prevalence of themes across groups and provides an overview of the findings, using representative quotes from each group.

Table 1 Parents’, teachers’ and children’s positions of group in children’s learning
Full size table

In the following presentation, participants are identified using a numbering system ranging from 1 to 9. The format is as follows: P1P1 for parent 1 at preschool 1, T1P1 for teacher 1 at preschool 1, and C1P1 for child 1 at preschool 1.

Parents’ positioning of group in children’s learning

According to the parents, a central feature of the group experience in children’s learning was the development and practice of various social knowledge and skills. As one parent wrote: ‘Children need to know social boundaries, skills to interact with others, being kind, sharing, cooperating and the concept of fair and unfair’ (P1P1). All parents agreed that learning necessary social skills was essential for children in an early childhood environment. One parent noted that ‘many skills can’t be learnt in isolation and require a group environment’ (P1P4). Parents saw a difference between individual and group learning. Certain skills, like academic skills and toilet training can be learned at home or in isolation. However, social skills such as ‘sharing’, ‘turn taking’, ‘teamwork’, ‘cooperation’, ‘care’, ‘respect’, ‘tolerance’, ‘negotiation’, ‘emotional regulation’, ‘acceptable behaviour’, ‘communication and language skills’, and ‘resilience’ are better learned in a group setting. Most parents (90%) believed that these skills were crucial in preparing children for school. Some (20%) specifically highlighted the preschool phase as an essential time for children to benefit from group experiences, especially as they approach the age of formal schooling.

Many parents (n = 40) stressed the importance of nurturing individual ability within group settings. Some emphasized the need for their child to be acknowledged within the group and provided with opportunities to lead activities (P2P15). This was clearly described by a parent (P1P9) who said that it was crucial for their child to have a say in the programme and be ‘seen as a special individual’. Another parent (P2P30) highlighted that ‘my child needs to decide when and what he wants to play with’. When discussing specific individual abilities, parents mentioned the importance of children learning to ‘to say ‘no’ [when they need to], ‘have the boldness to speak out’, ‘make self-decisions’ and ‘maintain and extend their own interests’.

Data from 41 parents embraced the idea of ‘difference’ and saw group as an avenue of positive relationships between self and others. These parents believed that exposure to peers with varying abilities and personalities helped children recognise their own needs and develop ‘different ways of learning and thinking’ (P1P10). They summarised this experience as ‘…an extension of self where children learn good habits, cooperation and other social skills whilst still also discovering their own identity and dispositions (P1P15).

Despite this, data also revealed concerns from some parents (n = 29) regarding the tension between individuality and group dynamics. They worried that children might lose their sense of identity and be overly influenced by a group, leading to negative outcomes. As one parent stated, ‘children should learn own identity and preferences rather than always being influenced by group’ (P3P17). The fear was that peer pressure could undermine children’s capacity for independent thinking. Another parent (P3P13) worried that group work could negatively impact their child’s confidence if he felt he could not perform as well as others in the group.

Teachers’ positioning of group in children’s learning

Teachers’ data revealed a prominent theme: groups were an integral part of life. They unanimously emphasised the importance of group experience, whether in large or small settings, as a vital component of children’s learning and development. According to one teacher: ‘most of their learning and work and things that children do is in groups of people’ (P2T1). The teachers observed that recurrent events in preschools provide ample opportunities for children to learn and grow in group contexts.

Teachers identified a crucial aspect of children’s learning in groups, emphasising the recognition of each child as an individual while fostering a sense of belonging and togetherness within the group. Most teachers (n = 5) emhasised the group setting as an opportunity to celebrate the uniqueness of each child, creating a sense of togetherness. One teacher explained, ‘the concept of togetherness consists of us and the community and embracing all that every individual child brings’ (P3T1). Another teacher echoed this sentiment, stating: ‘group is about participation and learning to belong in groups and respecting each person’ (P3T1). Four other teachers highlighted the importance of cultivating children’s sense of belonging and fostering bonds within the group. As one teacher noted, ‘It is the bonds between a child and staff, families and wider community’ (P2T2).

Many teachers (n = 5) discussed the difficulties of accommodating individual children within group activities due to children’s different genders, abilities, dispositions, confidence levels, communication skills, learning styles and previous group experiences. This is described by one teacher (P2T1) as a ‘fine dance’ that requires teachers’ ability to balance individual and group needs. While ‘group experience can be beneficial in highlighting and strengthening a child’s learning, some children may struggle and isolate themselves’ (P1T1). When children present with complex needs, the situation of ‘collective learning’ (P2T2) becomes more demanding for teachers, as illustrated by one participant: ‘Learning to socialise in a large group is the ‘trickiest’ area for children with complex needs who struggle to pay attention and need to be supported by staff.’ For one teacher, ‘because group is the child’s extended world with the child at the centre’ it is important that teachers support the move from ‘me’ to ‘us’ to strengthen children’s success in groups (P3T1). However, balancing children's autonomy in learning with their active participation in group dynamics poses a significant challenge for many teachers (n = 5). They perceived it as a nuanced task, necessitating support for children to make independent choices, while contributing positively to the group environment.

Mirroring the parents’ data, teachers’ interviews also highlighted the potential for nurturing social development within group contexts. They recognised the importance of developing essential skills, such as confidence, respect, and accepting differences as integral components of children’s learning. One teacher (P3T1) noted ‘It is mainly that confidence to be in the group. I don’t care if they are the leader or the follower as long as you feel confident enough to contribute’. Another teacher (P2T1) explained children’s learning within groups as fostering a culture of respect for listening to others, acknowledging the diversity of opinions, ideas and thoughts.

Children’s positioning of group in learning

Children’s data reflects the idea that group is a collection of friends who do fun things together. The concept of group as consisting of ‘friends’, was highlighted by all the children, with one child defining friends as ‘everyone, including the teachers’ (P3C3), and another as ‘all of them, all of the kids at kinder’ (P1C4). According to the data, common interests and rituals form the basis of friendships for many children (n = 21), making their play fun and improving their learning. One child summed up the idea of group as ‘about fun and happiness’ (P1C3). Five children identified how ‘swinging on swings and pushing each other’, ‘playing superheroes and pretending to wear the dress-ups’ and ‘playing sports together’ were fun things that ‘we could play for a long time together’ (P2C4–C6 and P3C1-2).

The concept of group was consistently discussed as togetherness. Children described collaborative activities such as making a volcano together (P2C1–3) or finding a crab together (P2C2). During the interview, the importance of group membership was evident. The children demonstrated a strong awareness of who was present and who was absent and often looked for each other to play with. For example, when discussing play in the sandpit, one child (P3C6) mentioned ‘we did not do it today because xxx [child’s name] is not here’. Another child (P3C7) stated that ‘not everyone is here today. I want all my friends to play together’.

Participation in groups created feelings of care and security among children (n = 21), as illustrated by the following data excepts. Children expressed feeling supported by their peers: ‘it’s nice with my friends sitting around me and it’s caring’ (P3C2); and ‘the kids who are sitting next to me, it is like caring after me and it’s making me and it feels so good’ (P3C1). Mutual help is another way in which the value of the group is demonstrated. For example, one child said: ‘My friend gives me a lot of help when I don’t have—I need to say something and it’s so hard by myself I call them and they come over and help me do it’ (P2C5); ‘And then we hear… get a bit sad, then I come and help here and say, ‘What’s the problem?’ (P2C3).

Being part of a group also involves adhering to rules, such as taking turns. Children in this study repeatedly emphasised the importance of knowing and following group rules. For example, they mentioned, ‘we need to wait for a turn’(P1C4–6), ‘you just need to remember to wait’ (P2C2), and ‘we are not allowed to talk on the mat’ (P3C7). Thus, coming together as a group means actively learning and following group rules in both child-initiated and teacher-led contexts.

Another salient feature of group from children’s perspectives was exclusion. While group typically fostered feelings of friendship and togetherness, exclusion was also an identified experience, limiting children’s involvement with others. Some children (n = 16) referred to group as ‘our group’, ‘their group’ or ‘the other group’, with some specifying that only girls or boys could play (n = 13): ‘boys are not allowed in girls’ group’ (P1C3). Additionally, children described excluding certain peers from their groups, citing reasons such as someone being mean or annoying: ‘there is some boy who, like, was being mean to me always’ (P3C7) and ‘we sometimes don’t want to play with her because she annoys us’ (P2C4).

Furthermore, there were situations of unfairness in peer groups where some children asserted dominance over others ‘because I’m the fastest. I should be the leader’ (P1C2) or where children felt compelled to do what they did not like to do: ‘they start chasing me but I don’t like it’ (P3C2). During the focus groups, children’s group behaviours were evident, particularly in the presence of dominant speakers. The dynamics of the focus groups revealed distinct leaders and followers with some children answering questions for their peers.

In response to situations they perceived ‘unfair’, the children discussed seeking help from teachers, demonstrating their trust and confidence in their teachers’ ability to fairly address group issues: ‘sometimes they don’t let me play with them. The teacher helps me, like when…is being mean and tell…off’ (P2C2). This illustrates the children’s awareness that conflicts could arise in groups but there were also solutions. Additionally, the children saw their teachers as facilitators in their group activities, providing opportunities for them to extend their shared experience. P1C3 said that ‘we do dancing on the mat. The teacher comes and puts the music on’.

Discussion

Richardson et al. (2007) argued that applying a multiple lens on research contributed to nuanced and comprehensive understandings of a topic. The findings of the current research illustrated such a view as the perspectives of teachers, parents and children provided valuable information about the position of group in children’s learning. A comprehensive view of group from their perspectives has aligned with the accounts that we found in the past research, including, for example, developing social skills, extending learning, promoting togetherness, cultivating individuality and supporting children’s feeling of security and connection (Legget & Ford, 2016; Mardell, Rivard & Kreshevsky, 2012; Schaik et al., 2018). Moreover, the analysis allowed us to uncover the underlying influences driving participants’ positions. It sheds light on how group functions as a reflection of shared and distinct interests, needs and expectations among parents, teachers and children concerning children’s learning in their early childhood environment.

A consensus has emerged highlighting the importance of group in children's learning. Previous research has largely emphasised the social aspects of groups and their role in enhancing children’s experiences (Bennett, 2015; Williams et al., 2019). This focus aligns with the sociocultural perspective, which has significantly shaped teaching practices in early childhood education globally, including Australia (Arthur et al., 2021). Considering that ‘both parents and teachers are nested within a wider cultural and political context’ (Kwong et al., 2018, p. 276), it is unsurprising that their views on group as a source and context for social development are situated within these discourses. Children's perspectives are likewise influenced by these prevailing ideas, leading to a shared understanding among all participants that group provides a platform for cultivating children's social development.

However, the study revealed discrepancies in perspectives among parents, teachers and children regarding social development through group work. Parents highlighted various skills they deemed essential for children’s future success in school. In contrast, teachers prioritized confidence building and promoted respect for diversity. Their focus aligned with contemporary discourses emphasising holistic concepts such as dispositions and general capabilities, which are endorsed by Australian early childhood policies and prevalent in professional dialogues (AGDE, 2022; Carr, 2006). Seen from the children’s data, social development in groups meant following rules, helping others and being nice to each other. Their insights highlight the role of group in fostering collective learning, demonstrating a recognition of the benefit of group experiences that extend beyond individual development.

Participants unanimously recognised group as a space where children coexist as individuals, yet their perspectives varied. Teachers perceived group as fostering a sense of belonging and social integration for each child. Nevertheless, they faced challenges in addressing individual needs within group contexts. Conversely, parents viewed group as a platform for their children to explore personal interests and abilities, expressing concerns about individual development in group settings. Children reported mixed experiences with peers, including instances of exclusion and unfair treatment, consistent with prior research on negotiating individuality within groups (Castro, 2004; Dunham et al., 2011). The study thus highlighted the importance of understanding the interplay between self and others in children's group experiences, offering insights into enhancing professional practices for effective group learning environments. Although these issues are not new, their identification from diverse perspectives raises the need for attention in both research and practice.

Furthermore, drawing from developmental perspectives, we understand that children’s learning characteristics and outcomes evolve with age (Piaget, 1952; Slavin, 1995). Parents in this study particularly highlighted preschoolers as the primary beneficiary of group learning during the early childhood years. Consequently, the meaning of group may vary depending on children's age and developmental stage. It is therefore essential to consider that the experiences of the children in this research may not necessarily mirror those of peers in different age brackets.

It is important to recognise too that not all children naturally excel and learn best in a group. Moreover, there's a possibility that individual learning may be hindered by the dynamics present within the group (Georgopoulou, 2024). To enhance our understanding of how group could support children’s learning, teaching practices should consider various factors, in particular individual interests, the nature and purpose of group activities, family preferences, and the overall learning environment. The data from children in this study highlighted the importance of teachers in group experience that has clearly identified how teachers’ assistance facilitated children’s learning with peers.

It was also found that children positioned group as ‘us’ and ‘we’, an opportunity to ‘play with all my friends’ and be together, reflecting their natural desire to socialize. Corsaro (2014) notes that ‘preschoolers enjoy simply being and doing things together’ (p. 730), a sentiment echoed by the teachers, who viewed group as essential in nurturing a sense of belonging for each child. By positioning group in this way, teachers reinforced the image of the child as an active individual and collaborative group member, which corresponded to the anthropological ideology that advocated for children’s rights and agency (James & Prout, 2015). Moreover, in articulating this perspective, teachers explicitly showcased their dedication to the EYLF that highlighted the importance of ‘a sense of connectedness to groups and communities and an understanding of their reciprocal rights and responsibilities as active and informed citizens’ (AGDE, 2022, p. 39). As previously discussed, their commitment to professional and policy discourses was evident in instances where teachers demonstrated a broad sense of learning that extended beyond the mere development of skills in children.

The findings regarding children’s desires for friendship and togetherness suggest that teachers should avoid disrupting children’s natural inclination to form groups but instead facilitate opportunities for them to have fun, be together and develop a sense of belonging. With a more diverse positioning of group in mind, teaching practices can be better aligned with the pillars of community, identity, belonging, being and becoming outlined in the EYLF. Internationally, the field of early childhood education is undergoing an unprecedented transformation, spurred by various ongoing and unpredictable events with the worldwide pandemic being a prominent example. This has led to a greater focus on children’s wellbeing and resilience (Tso et al., 2022). Group experiences assume a pivotal role as a platform for fostering enjoyable experiences for children and nurturing a sense of care and support. As such, there is a growing need for heightened attention to the concept of group in both research and teaching practice to promote children’s wellbeing and resilience.

Upon synthesizing the findings of this research, it became clear that participants’ diverse agendas and interests influenced their positions of group in children’s learning. Parents tended to adopt an educational stance, while teachers prioritised strategies that supported children’s development as active and informed citizens. Conversely, children themselves perceived group as a means to promote togetherness and a sense of belonging. These perspectives are consistent with previous research on the definition of group in children’s learning, highlighting the challenge of reaching a consensus on the concept due to the various interpretations of its purpose and benefits (Powell, 2014).

Conclusion

In this study, group was explored from a tri-partite lens for a comprehensive understanding of its nuances across multiple perspectives that do not usually coexist. The findings revealed that group was perceived and implemented in ways predicted by parents, teachers and children’s unique desires and expectations.

It is important to acknowledge the limitations of the study, particularly its focus on only three early childhood services, which could have influenced the findings identified. Additionally, data collection involved a single tool for each participant group, introducing inherent limitations. For example, employing face-to face methods could have facilitated additional data collection from the parents. Furthermore, the inclusion of different children might have resulted in varied data, considering that the participating children in this research were generally sociable and communicative. Notwithstanding these shortcomings, the findings have afforded us a glimpse into the dynamic ways in which group was positioned as a contingent multiplicity. The deeper insights into the complexity and diversity of the notions of self, others, individual learning, social development, togetherness and belonging as expressed by the participants highlighted the opportunities within group contexts, but also revealed the challenges, promoting a reconsideration of ingrained assumptions about children’s learning in early childhood education.