Abstract
This paper examines whether government ideology has influenced political alignment with the U.S. in voting in the UN General Assembly. I analyze a dataset of UN General Assembly voting behavior of 21 OECD countries over the 1984–2005 period employing two alternative indices of government ideology. The results suggest that government ideology has had a strong influence on voting alignment with the U.S.: leftwing governments were less sympathetic to US positions. The ideology-induced effect was stronger when the US President was a Republican. This finding contrasts with the declining electoral cohesion in OECD countries. The distinctly different alignments of leftist and rightwing governments with the U.S. reflect deeper sources of ideological association than would be predicted if the issues were solely those of economic policy on a left–right spectrum.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Many commentators illustrate the close relationship between Russia and its satellite states in the former Soviet bloc in several ways. Voeten (2000), for example, demonstrates the East-West conflict between the U.S. and their allies and the Soviet bloc before and after the end of the Cold War examining UNGA voting. On bloc voting behavior in the UNGA see also Russett (1966) and Holloway and Tomlinson (1995). See McKeown (2009a), for example, for a discussion of transgovernmental relations as a “tool of statecraft” and how the Soviet government has had an influence on policies in East Germany.
Younas (2008), for example, analyzes other political economic characteristics such as political and civil rights.
Moreover, IMF support also appears to cause political business cycles in the recipient countries. The results by Dreher and Vaubel (2004), for example, suggest that new net credits from the IMF are significantly larger prior to elections.
Political alignment with the U.S. has advantages and disadvantages for other countries. On the negative side, for example, countries sympathetic to US positions are victims of more and deadlier terror attacks (Dreher and Gassebner 2008). On the positive side, for example, countries sympathetic to US positions, are more likely to receive more foreign aid and IMF loans. According to Dreher and Jensen (2007), countries more sympathetic to US positions (and other G7 countries) receive IMF loans with fewer conditions especially prior to elections. A related strand of literature, however, argues that the U.S. tries to influence voting behavior in the UNGA, for example, by foreign aid (see, e.g., Dreher et al. 2008). In any case, this buying of votes apparently affects countries that receive foreign aid and is not likely to occur with respect to OECD countries.
It is important to note that Switzerland joined the UN in 2000. For this reason, data for Switzerland are available since 2001 only and I do not include them. Moreover, the observation for Germany in 1984 is missing.
The report is addressed to the President of the Senate and to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and it is signed by the Secretary of State. Ultimately then, it is the Secretary of State who endorses the identification of key votes (also cited from Andersen et al. 2006: 1851 f.)
As an example, key votes in 1993 inter alia cover issues concerning the non-compliance of Iraq and North Korea with safeguards agreement on the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes; the US trade embargo of Cuba; a call for an Israeli withdrawal from the Golan Heights; and Israeli nuclear armament (also cited from Andersen et al. 2006: 1851 f.)
My observation period runs from 1984 to 2005 because the ICRG index is available since 1984. In a similar vein, the sample is somewhat reduced when the Bjørnskov (2008a) index is used because it is not available for 2005.
It is important to note that the ICRG measures are, rather broadly, in line with a conservative view of what institutions should do.
This argument is similar to the one outlined by Bjørnskov et al. (2008) who note the EU decisions on anti-dumping policy are partially determined by the ideological distance to the chairing country in the EU.
I choose the Blundell and Bond (1998) estimator as the initial estimator with which the instruments are collapsed as suggested by Roodman (2006). This procedure makes sure to avoid using invalid and too many instruments (see Roodman 2006, 2009 for further details). Following Bloom et al. (2007) I undertake 50 repetitions of the procedure to bootstrap the estimated standard errors. Bootstrapping the standard errors is common practice applying this estimator. The reason is that Monte Carlo simulations demonstrated that the analytical variance estimator performs poorly for large coefficients of the lagged dependent variable (see Bruno 2005b for further details). The results do not qualitatively change with more repetitions such as 100, 200 or 500 as well as when the Arellano and Bond (1991) estimator is chosen as initial estimator.’
Two studies address the issues of government turnover and declining ideologies. Horowitz et al. (2009) discuss and illustrate different measures of turnover by examining the post-communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe. Hellwig (2008) argues that changes in the organization of post-industrial economies have weakened the left–right bases of competition and analyzes post-election survey data from 16 parliamentary democracies between 1999 and 2003. His results suggest that occupational heterogeneity reduces the salience of the left-right dimension for the vote.
References
Andersen, T. B., Harr, T., & Tarp, F. (2006). On US politics and IMF lending. European Economic Review, 50(7), 1843–1862.
Arellano, M., & Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. Review of Economic Studies, 58(2), 277–297.
Barro, R. J., & Lee, J.-W. (2005). IMF-programs: who is chosen and what are the effects? Journal of Monetary Economics, 52(7), 1245–1269.
Beck, N., & Katz, J. N. (1996). Nuisance vs. substance: specifying and estimating time-series cross section models. Political Analysis, 6(1), 1–36.
Beck, T., Clarke, G., Groff, A., Keefer, P., & Walsh, P. (2001). New tools in comparative political economy: the database of political institutions. World Bank Economic Review, 15(1), 165–176.
Behr, A. (2003). A comparison of dynamic panel data estimators: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to the investment function. Discussion paper 05/03, Economic Research Centre of the Deutsche Bundesbank.
Bird, G. (2008). The implementation of IMF programs: a conceptual framework. Review of International Organizations, 3(1), 41–64.
Bjørnskov, C. (2005). Does political ideology affect economic growth? Public Choice, 123(2), 133–146.
Bjørnskov, C. (2008a). Political ideology and the structure of national accounts in the Nordic Countries, 1950–2004. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the European Public Choice Society, Jena 27–30 March 2008.
Bjørnskov, C. (2008b). The growth-inequality association: government ideology matters. Journal of Development Economics, 87(2), 300–308.
Bjørnskov, C., Nielsen, J. U.-M., & Schröder, P., (2008). Lobbying for anti-dumping measures: Does distance from Brussels matter. Paper presented at the Aarhus-Kiel-Workshop, Kiel 18–19 December 2008.
Blais, A., Blake, D., & Dion, S. (1993). Do parties make a difference? Parties and the size of government in liberal democracies. American Journal of Political Science, 37(1), 40–62.
Blais, A., Blake, D., & Dion, S. (1996). Do parties make a difference? A reappraisal. American Journal of Political Science, 40(2), 514–520.
Bloom, D., Canning, D., Mansfield, R. K., & Moore, M. (2007). Demographic change, social security systems, and savings. Journal of Monetary Economics, 54(1), 92–114.
Blundell, R. W., & Bond, S. R. (1998). Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics, 87(1), 115–143.
Blyth, M., & Katz, R. (2005). From Catch-all politics to cartelisation: the political economy of the cartel party. West European Politics, 28(1), 33–60.
Boix, C. (1998). Political parties, growth and equality—conservative and social democratic economic strategies in the world economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bortolotti, B., & Pinotti, P. (2008). Delayed privatization. Public Choice, 136(3–4), 331–351.
Brams, S. J., & O’Leary, M. K. (1970). An axiomatic model of voting bodies. American Political Science Review, 64, 449–470.
Broz, J. L. (2008). Congressional voting on funding in the international financial institutions. Review of International Organizations, 3(4), 351–374.
Bruno, G. S. F. (2005a). Approximating the bias of the LSDV estimator for dynamic unbalanced panel data models. Economics Letters, 87(3), 361–366.
Bruno, G. S. F. (2005b). Estimation and inference in dynamic unbalanced panel data models with a small number of individuals. Stata Journal, 5(4), 473–500.
Budge, I., Keman, H., & Woldendorp, J. (1993). Political data 1945–1990. Party government in 20 democracies. European Journal of Political Research, 24(1), 1–119.
Dai, X. (2007). International institutions and national policies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dreher, A., & Gassebner, M. (2007). Greasing the wheels of entrepreneurship? The impact of regulations and corruption on firm entry. CESifo Working Paper No 2013.
Dreher, A., & Gassebner, M. (2008). Does political proximity to the U.S. cause terror? Economics Letters, 99(1), 27–29.
Dreher, A., & Jensen, N. (2007). Independent actor or agent? An empirical analysis of the impact of US interests on IMF conditions. Journal of Law and Economics, 50(1), 105–124.
Dreher, A., & Jensen, N. (2009). Country or leader? Political change and UN General Assembly voting. KOF Working Paper No 217, ETH Zurich.
Dreher, A., & Sturm, J.-E. (2006). Do the IMF and the World Bank influence voting in the UN General Assembly? KOF Working Paper137, ETH Zurich.
Dreher, A., & Vaubel, R. (2004). Do IMF and IBRD cause moral hazard and political business cycles? Evidence from panel data. Open Economics Review, 15(1), 5–22.
Dreher, A., Thiele, R., & Nunnenkamp, P. (2008). Does US aid buy UN General Assembly votes? Public Choice, 136(1), 139–164.
Fleck, R. K., & Kilby, C. (2001). Foreign aid and domestic politics: voting in Congress and the allocation of USAID contracts across congressional districts. Southern Economic Journal, 67(3), 598–617.
Fleck, R. K., & Kilby, C. (2006). How do political changes influence U.S. bilateral aid allocations? Evidence from panel data. Review of Development Economics, 10(2), 224–240.
Friedrich, R. J. (1982). In defence of multiplicative terms in multiple regression equations. American Journal of Political Science, 26(4), 797–833.
Grunberg, G. (2005). Anti-Americanism in French and European public opinion. In T. Judt & D. Lacorne (Eds.), With or against the US: Studies in global Anti-Americanism (pp. 59–74). Houndmills, Basingtoke: Palgrave.
Heinemann, F., Mohl, P., & Osterloh, S. (2009). Who’s afraid of an EU tax and why?—revenue system preferences in the European Parliament. Review of International Organizations, 4(1), 73–99.
Hellwig, T. (2008). Explaining the salience of left–right ideology in postindustrial democracies: the role of structural economic change. European Journal of Political Research, 47(6), 687–709.
Henisz, W. (2000). The institutional environment for growth. Economics & Politics, 12(1), 1–31.
Holloway, S. K., & Tomlinson, R. (1995). The new world order and the General Assembly: bloc realignment at the UN in Post-Cold War world. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 28(2), 227–254.
Horowitz, S., Hoff, K., & Milanovic, B. (2009). Government turnover: concepts, measures and applications. European Journal of Political Research, 48, 107–129.
Imbeau, L. M., Pétry, F., & Lamari, M. (2001). Left–right party ideology and government policies: a meta-analysis. European Journal of Political Research, 40(1), 1–29.
Isernia, P. (2007). Anti-Americanism in Europe during the cold war. In P. J. Katzenstein & R. O. Keohane (Eds.), Anti-Americanism in world politics (pp. 57–92). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Katzenstein, P. J., & Keohane, R. O. (eds). (2007). Anti-Americanism in world politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Kegley, C. W., Jr., & Hook, S. W. (1991). U.S. foreign aid and U.N. voting: did Reagan’s linkage strategy buy defence or defiance? International Studies Quarterly, 35(3), 295–312.
Mair, P. (2008). The challenge to party government. West European Politics, 31(1), 211–231.
McKeown, T. J. (2009a). The big influence of big allies: transgovernmental relations as a tool of statecraft. In H. V. Millner & A. Moravcsik (Eds.), Power, interdependence, and nonstate actors in world politics (pp. 204–222). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
McKeown, T. J. (2009b). How U.S. decision-makers assessed their control of multilateral organizations, 1957–1982. Review of International Organizations, forthcoming.
Millner, H. V., & Tingley, D. H. (2008). The political economy of U.S. foreign aid: American legislators and the domestic politics of aid. Working Paper. Princeton University.
Newey, W. K., & West, K. D. (1987). A simple, positive semi-definite, heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation consistent covariance matrix. Econometrica, 55(3), 703–708.
Noël, A., & Thérien, J.-P. (2008). Left and right in global politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pitlik, H. (2007). A race to liberalization? Diffusion of economic policy reform among OECD-economies. Public Choice, 132(1), 159–178.
Potrafke, N. (2008a). The growth of public health expenditures: do government ideology and electoral motives matter? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the European Public Choice Society, Jena 2–5 April 2008.
Potrafke, N. (2008b). Parties change! Introducing a dynamic index on voter polarization. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Public Choice Society, San Antonio 6–9 March 2008.
Potrafke, N. (2009). Did globalization restrict partisan politics? An empirical evaluation of social expenditures in a panel of OECD countries. Public Choice, 140(1–2), 105–124.
Roodman, D. (2006). How to do xtabond2: An introduction to “Difference” and “System” GMM in Stata. Center for Global Development. Working Paper 103.
Roodman, D. (2009). A note on the theme of too many instruments. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 71(1), 135–158.
Ross, F. (2000). “Beyond left and right”: the new partisan politics of welfare. Governance: An international Journal of Policy and Administration, 13(2), 155–183.
Russett, B. M. (1966). Discovering voting groups in the United Nations. American Political Science Review, 60(2), 327–339.
Sakamoto, T. (2008). Economic policy and performance in industrial democracies—party governments, central banks and the fiscal-monetary policy mix. London: Routledge.
Sexton, E. A., & Decker, T. N. (1992). U. S. foreign aid: is it for friends, development or politics? Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, 17(3–4), 303–315.
Steinwand, M., & Stone, R. W. (2008). The international monetary fund: a review of recent evidence. Review of International Organizations, 3(2), 123–149.
Stone, R. W. (2004). The political economy of IMF in Africa. American Political Science Review, 98(4), 577–591.
Stone, R. W. (2007). The scope of IMF conditionality. Working paper. University of Rochester.
Thacker, S. (1999). The high politics of IMF lending. World Politics, 52, 38–75.
Vaubel, R. (1986). A public choice approach to international organisation. Public Choice, 51(1), 39–57.
Vaubel, R. (2006). Principal-agent problems in international organizations. Review of International Organizations, 1(2), 125–138.
Vaubel, R. (2008). The political economy of labor market regulation by the European Union. Review of International Organizations, 3(4), 435–465.
Voeten, E. (2000). Clashes in the assembly. International Organization, 54(2), 185–215.
Voeten, E. (2004). Documenting votes in the UN General Assembly. Political Science and International Affairs, George Washington University.
Wittkopf, E. (1973). Foreign aid and United Nations votes: a comparative study. American Political Science Review, 67(3), 868–888.
Woldendorp, J., Keman, H., & Budge, I. (1998). Party government in 20 democracies: an update 1990–1995. European Journal of Political Research, 33(1), 125–164.
Woldendorp, J., Keman, H., & Budge, I. (2000). Party government in 48 democracies 1945–1998: Composition, duration, personnel. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
Wooldridge, J. M. (2002). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. Cambridge: MIT.
World Bank (2009). World Development Indicators Online. Washington, DC.
Younas, J. (2008). Motivation for bilateral aid allocation: altruism or trade benefits. European Journal of Political Economy, 24(3), 661-674.
Acknowledgements
I thank Christian Bjørnskov, Axel Dreher, Arye Hillman, Heinrich Ursprung and three anonymous referees for helpful comments, hints and suggestions. Viktor Brech has provided excellent research assistance. All errors are my own.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
Data description and sources
Descriptive Statistics.
Variable | Observations | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min | Max | Source |
UNGA All Votes | 461 | 0.52 | 0.07 | 0.29 | 0.75 | Dreher and Jensen (2009) |
UNGA Key Votes | 461 | 0.68 | 0.15 | 0.25 | 1 | Dreher and Jensen (2009) |
UNGA Non Key Votes | 461 | 0.49 | 0.07 | 0.28 | 0.69 | Dreher and Jensen (2009) |
Ideology (leftwing) | 462 | 2.89 | 0.90 | 1 | 4 | Potrafke (2009) |
Ideology (rightwing) | 441 | 0.27 | 0.35 | −0.57 | 1 | Bjørnskov (2008a) |
Absence of corruption | 462 | 10.05 | 1.94 | 4.00 | 12.33 | ICRG |
GDP per capita | 462 | 21389.08 | 7900.51 | 6262.40 | 51590.18 | World Bank (2009) |
GDP growth | 462 | 2.88 | 2.18 | −6.24 | 11.68 | World Bank (2009) |
US imports | 415 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.32 | OECD Stat. Comp. |
Variables description
Variable | Description | Source |
UNGA All Votes | Votes in agreement with the U.S. are coded as 1, votes in disagreement as 0, and abstentions or absences as 0.5. The resulting numbers are divided by the total number of votes in each year. | Dreher and Jensen (2009) |
UNGA Key Votes | Votes in agreement with the U.S. are coded as 1, votes in disagreement as 0, and abstentions or absences as 0.5. The resulting numbers are divided by the total number of votes in each year. Key Votes are votes deemed to be important by the US Department of State. | Dreher and Jensen (2009) |
UNGA Non-Key Votes | Votes in agreement with the U.S. are coded as 1, votes in disagreement as 0, and abstentions or absences as 0.5. The resulting numbers are divided by the total number of votes in each year. Non-Key Votes are votes not deemed to be important by the US Department of State. | Dreher and Jensen (2009) |
Absence of corruption | Measures corruption in the political system as a threat to foreign investment based on the analysis of a worldwide network of experts, on a scale of 0–14. | ICRG |
GDP per capita | GDP per capita is gross domestic product divided by midyear population. GDP at purchaser's prices is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Data are in constant 2000 US$. | World Bank (2009) |
GDP growth | Yearly GDP growth rate in percent | World Bank (2009) |
US imports | Imports of United States (as a share of domestic GDP) | OECD Stat. Compendium |
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Potrafke, N. Does government ideology influence political alignment with the U.S.? An empirical analysis of voting in the UN General Assembly. Rev Int Organ 4, 245–268 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-009-9066-5
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-009-9066-5
Keywords
- Political alignment with the U.S.
- United Nations General Assembly voting
- Government ideology
- Anti-Americanism
- Panel data