Abstract
Groundwater is widely regarded as being among the freshwater natural resources with the lowest levels of contamination. Nevertheless, the saltwater intrusion has resulted in the contamination of groundwater in coastal regions with lower elevation. The rationale of the present work is to investigate the chemistry of groundwater, to identify the various facies of groundwater, to identify the processes that influence groundwater chemistry and saltwater intrusion, and to evaluate the groundwater’s aptness for use in drinking and farming. In order to gain an understanding of the groundwater quality as well as the salinization process that occurs in coastal aquifers as a result of hydrogeochemical processes, a total of 108 groundwater samples (54 each in pre- and post-monsoon) were taken and analyzed for several physiochemical parameters in the southern part of the Puri district in the Indian state of Odisha. The data has undergone analysis and examination to identify the factors (such as hydrological facies, potential solute source in water, and salinization process) that contribute to groundwater salinity. The result showed the chemistry controlling processes of rock-water interaction as per Gibbs diagram. The majority of shallow aquifers exhibit the Na-Cl type of facies as per the Piper plot. A total of 37% pre-monsoon and 33% post-monsoon samples having Na+/Cl− ratio below the threshold of 0.86 indicating the influence of saltwater intrusion. In both seasons, it was observed that 74% of the samples exhibited a Na+ concentration that exceeded the permissible limit set by the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking purposes. The findings indicate that most groundwater failed to pass safe drinking water and irrigation standards due to saltwater intrusion. Consequently, the monitoring of coastal aquifer quality has become imperative in order to ensure the sustainability of aquifers and the development of groundwater resources. This is because coastal aquifers are highly vulnerable to saltwater intrusion, primarily as a result of the extensive extraction of groundwater for diverse purposes.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All the data generated during the study are included in this research publication and reviewed by all authors. The data is available from the corresponding author, upon request.
References
Aladejana JA, Kalin RM, Sentenac P, Hassan I (2021) Groundwater quality index as a hydrochemical tool for monitoring saltwater intrusion into coastal freshwater aquifer of Eastern Dahomey Basin, Southwestern Nigeria. Groundw Sustain Dev 1(13):100568
APHA (2012) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 22nd edn. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, Washington
Asare A, Appiah-Adjei EK, Ali B, Owusu-Nimo F (2021) Assessment of seawater intrusion using ionic ratios: the case of coastal communities along the Central Region of Ghana. Environ Earth Sci 80:1–4
Barclay TM, Hicks RG, Lemaire MT, Thompson LK, Xu Z (2002) Synthesis and coordination chemistry of a water-soluble verdazyl radical. structures and magnetic properties of M (H 2 O) 2 (vdCO 2) 2· 2H 2O (M= Co, Ni; vdCO 2= 1, 5-dimethyl-6-oxo-verdazyl-3-carboxylate). Chem Comm (16):1688–1689
Bear J, Cheng AHD, Sorek S, Ouazar D, Herrera I (Eds.) (1999) Seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers: concepts, methods and practices, vol 14. Springer Science & Business Media
Belkhiri L, Boudoukha A, Mouni L (2011) A multivariate statistical analysis of groundwater chemistry data. Int J Environ Res 5(2):537–544
BIS (2012) Indian standard, drinking water-specification (second revision). IS: 10500, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
Borah KK, Bhuyan B, Sarma HP (2009) Heavy metal contamination of groundwater in the tea garden belt of Darrang district, Assam, India. E-J Chem 6(S1):S501-7
Busico G, Cuoco E, Kazakis N, Colombani N, Mastrocicco M, Tedesco D, Voudouris K (2018) Multivariate statistical analysis to characterize/discriminate between anthropogenic and geogenic trace elements occurrence in the Campania Plain, Southern Italy. Environ Pollut 1(234):260–269
Cartwright I, Weaver TR, Fifield LK (2006) Cl/Br ratios and environmental isotopes as indicators of recharge variability and groundwater flow: an example from the southeast Murray Basin, Australia. Chem Geol 231(1–2):38–56
CGWB (2017) National Aquifer Mapping in the district of Puri, Odisha. Interim Unp. Rep. Central Ground Water Board, South Eastern Region, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. Ministry of Water Resources, RD & GR, Government of India
Chakrabarty S, Sarma HP (2011) Heavy metal contamination of drinking water in Kamrup district, Assam, India. Environ Monit Assess 179:479–486
Chidambaram S, Sarathidasan J, Srinivasamoorthy K, Thivya C, Thilagavathi R, Prasanna M V, Nepolian M (2018) Assessment of hydrogeochemical status of groundwater in a coastal region of Southeast coast of India. Appl Water Sci 8:1–14
Cloutier V, Lefebvre R, Therrien R, Savard MM (2008) Multivariate statistical analysis of geochemical data as indicative of the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in a sedimentary rock aquifer system. J Hydrol 353(3–4):294–313
Davis SN, De Wiest RJM, Ferris JG, Knowles B, Brown RH, Stallman RW (1966) Groundwater in fractured rocks. New York, Hydrogeology 318
De Montety V, Radakovitch O, Vallet-Coulomb C, Blavoux B, Hermitte D, Valles V (2008) Origin of groundwater salinity and hydrogeochemical processes in a confined coastal aquifer: case of the Rhône delta (Southern France). Appl Geochem 23(8):2337–2349
Eaton FM (1950) Significance of carbonates in irrigation waters. Soil Sci 69(2):123–134
Emenike CP, Tenebe IT, Jarvis P (2018) Fluoride contamination in groundwater sources in Southwestern Nigeria: assessment using multivariate statistical approach and human health risk. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 156:391–402
Essink GH (2001) Improving fresh groundwater supply—problems and solutions. Ocean Coast Manag 44(5–6):429–449
Etikala B, Adimalla N, Madhav S, Somagouni SG, Keshava Kiran Kumar PL (2021) Salinity problems in groundwater and management strategies in arid and semi-arid regions. Groundw Geochem: Pollut Remediat Methods 25:42–56
Famiglietti JS (2014) The global groundwater crisis. Nat Clim Chang 4(11):945
Ferguson G, Gleeson T (2012) Vulnerability of coastal aquifers to groundwater use and climate change. Nat Clim Chang 2(5):342–345
Freeze RA, Cherry JA (1979) Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 604
Glynn PD, Plummer LN (2005) Geochemistry and the understanding of ground-water systems. Hydrogeol J 13:263–287
Gomes OV, Marques ED, Kütter VT, Aires JR, Travi Y, Silva-Filho EV (2019) Origin of salinity and hydrogeochemical features of porous aquifers from northeastern Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, SE-Brazil. J Hydrol Reg Stud 22:100601
Gowd SS (2005) Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes: a case study of Peddavanka watershed, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environ Geol 48:702–712
Huang G, Sun J, Zhang Y, Chen Z, Liu F (2013) Impact of anthropogenic and natural processes on the evolution of groundwater chemistry in a rapidly urbanized coastal area, South China. Sci Total Environ 463:209–221
Idowu TE, Lasisi KH (2020) Seawater intrusion in the coastal aquifers of East and Horn of Africa: a review from a regional perspective. Sci Afr 8:e00402
Idowu TE, Nyadawa M, K’Orowe MO (2017) Hydrogeochemical assessment of a coastal aquifer using statistical and geospatial techniques: case study of Mombasa North Coast, Kenya. Environ Earth Sci 76:1–8
Islam ARMT, Ahmed N, Bodrud-Doza M, Chu R (2017) Characterizing groundwater quality ranks for drinking purposes in Sylhet district, Bangladesh, using entropy method, spatial autocorrelation index, and geostatistics. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:26350–26374
Jalali M (2007) Salinization of groundwater in arid and semi-arid zones: an example from Tajarak, western Iran. Environ Geol 56:1479–1488
Jalali M (2010) Groundwater geochemistry in the Alisadr, Hamadan, western Iran. Environ Monit Assess 166(1–4):359–369
Jampani M, Huelsmann S, Liedl R, Sonkamble S, Ahmed S, Amerasinghe P (2018) Spatio-temporal distribution and chemical characterization of groundwater quality of a wastewater irrigated system: a case study. Sci Total Environ 636:1089–1098
Jeevanandam M, Nagarajan R, Manikandan M, Senthilkumar M, Srinivasalu S, Prasanna MV (2012) Hydrogeochemistry and microbial contamination of groundwater from lower ponnaiyar basin, cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ Earth Sci 67:867–887
Jia Y, Guo H, Xi B, Jiang Y, Zhang Z, Yuan R, Yi W, Xue X (2017) Sources of groundwater salinity and potential impact on arsenic mobility in the western Hetao Basin, Inner Mongolia. Sci Total Environ 601:691–702
Kelly WP (1940) Permissible composition and concentration of irrigated waters. In: Proceedings of the ASCF 66, p 607
Kim Y, Lee KS, Koh DC, Lee DH, Lee SG, Park WB, Koh GW, Woo NC (2003) Hydrogeochemical and isotopic evidence of groundwater salinization in a coastal aquifer: a case study in Jeju volcanic island, Korea. J Hydrol 270(3–4):282–294
Krishna Kumar S, Bharani R, Magesh NS, Godson PS, Chandrasekar N (2014) Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater quality appraisal of part of south Chennai coastal aquifers, Tamil Nadu, India using WQI and fuzzy logic method. App Water Sci 4:341–350
Kumar M, Panday DP, Bhagat C, Herbha N, Agarwal V (2023) Demystifying the decadal shift in the extent of groundwater in the coastal aquifers of Gujarat, India: a case of reduced extent but increased magnitude of seawater intrusion. Sci Total Environ 898:165451
Kumar M, Rahman MM, Ramanathan AL, Naidu R (2016) Arsenic and other elements in drinking water and dietary components from the middle Gangetic plain of Bihar, India: health risk index. Sci Total Environ 539:125–134
Kura NU, Ramli MF, Sulaiman WN, Ibrahim S, Aris AZ (2018) An overview of groundwater chemistry studies in Malaysia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:7231–7249
Lloyd JW, Heathcote JAA (1985) Natural inorganic hydrochemistry in relation to ground water
Madhav S, Ahamad A, Kumar A, Kushawaha J, Singh P, Mishra PK (2018) Geochemical assessment of groundwater quality for its suitability for drinking and irrigation purpose in rural areas of Sant Ravidas Nagar (Bhadohi), Uttar Pradesh. Geol Ecol Landsc 2(2):127–136
Madhav S, Kumar A, Kushawaha J, Ahamad A, Singh P, Dwivedi SB (2020) Geochemical assessment of groundwater quality in Keonjhar City, Odisha, India. Sustain Water Resour Manag 6:1–1
Madhav S, Raju NJ, Ahamad A, Singh AK, Ram P, Gossel W (2021) Hydrogeochemical assessment of groundwater quality and associated potential human health risk in Bhadohi environs, India. Environ Earth Sci 80(17):585
Masood A, Aslam M, Pham QB, Khan W, Masood S (2022) Integrating water quality index, GIS and multivariate statistical techniques towards a better understanding of drinking water quality. Environ Sci Pollut Res 1–17
Mohanty AK, Rao VG (2019) Hydrogeochemical, seawater intrusion and oxygen isotope studies on a coastal region in the Puri District of Odisha, India. Catena 172:558–571
Mohapatra PK, Vijay R, Pujari PR, Sundaray SK, Mohanty BP (2011) Determination of processes affecting groundwater quality in the coastal aquifer beneath Puri city, India: a multivariate statistical approach. Water Sci Technol 64(4):809–817
Mondal NC, Singh VP, Singh S, Singh VS (2011) Hydrochemical characteristic of coastal aquifer from Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ Monit Assess 175(1–4):531–550
Moujabber ME, Samra BB, Darwish T, Atallah T (2006) Comparison of different indicators for groundwater contamination by seawater intrusion on the Lebanese coast. Water Resour Manag 20:161–180
Nair IS, Rajaveni SP, Schneider M, Elango L (2015) Geochemical and isotopic signatures for the identification of seawater intrusion in an alluvial aquifer. J Earth Syst Sci 124:1281–1291
Paliwal KV, Singh S (1967) Effect of gypsum application on the quality of irrigation waters. Madras Agric J 59:646–647
Park SC, Yun ST, Chae GT, Yoo IS, Shin KS, Heo CH, Lee SK (2005) Regional hydrochemical study on salinization of coastal aquifers, western coastal area of South Korea. J Hydrol 313(3–4):182–194
Pastén-Zapata E, Ledesma-Ruiz R, Harter T, Ramírez AI, Mahlknecht J (2014) Assessment of sources and fate of nitrate in shallow groundwater of an agricultural area by using a multi-tracer approach. Sci Total Environ 470:855–864
Patel P, Raju NJ, Reddy BS, Suresh U, Gossel W, Wycisk P (2016) Geochemical processes and multivariate statistical analysis for the assessment of groundwater quality in the Swarnamukhi River basin, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environ Earth Sci 75:1–24
Piper AM (1944) A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water-analyses. EOS Trans Am Geophys Union 25(6):914–928
De Pippo T, Donadio C, Guida M, Petrosino C (2006) The case of Sarno River (Southern Italy). Effects of geomorphology on the environmental impacts (8 pp). Environ Sci Pollut Res 13:184–191
Prasanna MV, Chidambaram S, Gireesh TV, Jabir Ali TV (2011) A study on hydrochemical characteristics of surface and sub-surface water in and around Perumal Lake, Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu, South India. Environ Earth Sci 63:31–47
Prusty P, Farooq SH, Zimik HV, Barik SS (2018) Assessment of the factors controlling groundwater quality in a coastal aquifer adjacent to the Bay of Bengal, India. Environ Earth Sci 77:1–15
Purnama S, Marfai MA (2012) Saline water intrusion toward groundwater: issues and its control. J Nat Resour Dev 2:25–32
Radhakrishna I (2001) Saline fresh water interface structure in Mahanadi delta region, Orissa, India. Environ Geol 40(3):369–380
Raju NJ (2012) Arsenic Exposure through groundwater in the Middle Ganga Plain in the Varanasi Environs, India: a future threat. J Geol Soc 79:302–314
Raju NJ, Ram P, Dey S (2009) Groundwater quality in the lower Varuna river basin, Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh. J Geol Soc 73:178–192
Raju NJ, Shukla UK, Ram P (2011) Hydrogeochemistry for the assessment of groundwater quality in Varanasi: a fast-urbanizing center in Uttar Pradesh, India. Environ Monit Assess 173:279–300
Raju NJ, Ram P, Gossel W (2014) Evaluation of groundwater vulnerability in the lower Varuna catchment area, Uttar Pradesh, India using AVI concept. J Geol Soc 83:273–278
Rao NS (2012) Chemical characteristics of groundwater and assessment of groundwater quality in Varaha River Basin Vishakhapattanam District, Andhra Pradesh India. Environ Monit Assess 184:5189–5214
Richards LA (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. US Department of Agri. Hand book, no 60
Sahagian D (2000) Global physical effects of anthropogenic hydrological alterations: sea level and water redistribution. Glob Planet Chang 25(1–2):39–48
Sahoo S (2014) Assessment of groundwater recharge using water-table fluctuation method and water-balance model. Environ Sci Technol 1:27
Sahu JK, Das PP, Sahoo HK, Mohapatra PP, Sahoo S (2018) Geospatial analysis and hydrogeochemical investigation of a part of southern Mahanadi delta, Odisha, India. Himal Geol 39(1):92–100
Satheeskumar V, Subramani T, Lakshumanan C, Roy PD, Karunanidhi D (2021) Groundwater chemistry and demarcation of seawater intrusion zones in the Thamirabarani delta of south India based on geochemical signatures. Environ Geochem Health 43:757–770
Sawyer CN, McCarty PL (1967) Chemistry for sanitary engineers. McGraw-Hill, New York
Schoeller H (1965) Qualitative evaluation of groundwater resources. Methods and techniques of groundwater investigations and development. UNESCO, Paris, pp 54–83
Schwendimann L, Sivaprakasam I, Buvaneshwari S, Gurumurthy GP, Mishra S, Ruiz L, Sekhar M, Fleiss B, Riotte J, Mani S, Gressens P (2021) Agricultural groundwater with high nitrates and dissolved salts given to pregnant mice alters brain development in the offspring. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 224:112635
Selvakumar S, Chandrasekar N (2021) Impacts of beach placer mineral mining in the shallow coastal aquifers of Southern Tamil Nadu Coast, India. Water Sci Sustain 183–200
Singh S, Raju NJ, Ramakrishna C (2015) Evaluation of groundwater quality and its suitability for domestic and irrigation use in parts of the Chandauli-Varanasi region, Uttar Pradesh, India. J Water Resource Prot 7(07):572
Srinivasamoorthy K, Gopinath M, Chidambaram S, Vasanthavigar M, Sarma VS (2014) Hydrochemical characterization and quality appraisal of groundwater from Pungar sub basin, Tamilnadu, India. J King Saud Univ-Sci 26(1):37–52
Stuyfzand PJ (2008) Base exchange indices as indicators of salinization or freshening of (coastal) aquifers. In: 20th Salt Water Intrusion Meeting, Naples, Florida, USA. IFAS Research Gainesville
Sudaryanto, Naily W (2018) Ratio of major ions in groundwater to determine saltwater intrusion in coastal areas. IOP Conf Ser: Environ Earth Sci 118:012021
Suguna S, Sherene T (2019) Assessment of sea water intrusion in ground water samples of selected blocks of Cuddalore District, Tamil Nadu, India. Madras Agric J 106:7–9
Szabolcs I, Darab K (1964) Radioactive technique for examining the improving effect of CaCO3 on alkali (szik) soils
Umar R, Alam F (2012) Assessment of hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater in parts of Hindon-Yamuna interfluve region, Baghpat District, Western Uttar Pradesh. Environ Monit Assess 184:2321–2336
USSL (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. USDA Hand Book, 60: 147
Vengosh A, Rosenthal E (1994) Saline groundwater in Israel: its bearing on the water crisis in the country. J Hydrol 156(1–4):389–430
Vengosh A, Spivack AJ, Artzi Y, Ayalon A (1999) Geochemical and boron, strontium, and oxygen isotopic constraints on the origin of the salinity in groundwater from the Mediterranean coast of Israel. Water Resour Res 35(6):1877–1894
Vijay R, Khobragade P, Mohapatra PK (2011) Assessment of groundwater quality in Puri City, India: an impact of anthropogenic activities. Environ Monit and Assess 177:409–418
World Health Organisation (WHO) (2006) Guidelines for drinking water quality; Geneva, World Health Organisation
Wilcox LV (1948) The quality of water for irrigation use
Yidana SM, Bawoyobie P, Sakyi P, Fynn OF (2018) Evolutionary analysis of groundwater flow: application of multivariate statistical analysis to hydrochemical data in the Densu Basin, Ghana. J Afr Earth Sci 138:167–176
Acknowledgements
First author is thankful to the Hydrogeology and Environmental Geochemistry Lab, School of Environmental Sciences for providing laboratory facilities for generating the data.
Funding
The author Jyoti Kushawaha has availed the funding from the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR-NET, File No. 09/263(1148)/2018-EMR-I) during her research related to this publication.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The conceptualization and methodology of the study were collective efforts of all of the authors. Jyoti Kushawaha has done the investigation and formal analysis, validation, data curation, interpretation, and writing of original draft preparation. Janardhana Raju Nandimandalam has made the investigation, validation, visualization, interpretation, editing, and supervision. Dr. Sughosh Madhav and Amit Kumar Singh have contributed in statistical analysis, validation, data curation, and editing. The final manuscript has been read and approved by all of the authors.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to publish
The authors have consent to publish this work.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: V.V.S.S. Sarma
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Kushawaha, J., Nandimandalam, J.R., Madhav, S. et al. Evaluation of hydrogeochemical processes and saltwater intrusion in the coastal aquifers in the southern part of Puri District, Odisha, India. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32833-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32833-w