Abstract
Utah’s dual language education (DL) initiative, officially introduced in 2007 and backed by unique state-level planning, is touted as a new “mainstreaming” of DL and is sparking interest across the U.S. Using a critical language policy lens and a mixed method approach, we asked which student groups were positioned discursively and materially to benefit the most from this policy across three types of privilege: white racial privilege, wealth, and English privilege. A critical discourse analysis conducted of five main Utah DL policy texts pointed toward already privileged student groups being discursively targeted for DL participation. Analysis of the demographics of schools housing DL programs between 2005 and 2014 showed a statistically significant drop in access for those without the three forms of privilege under study. We argue these findings are consistent with a larger trend toward the metaphorical gentrification of DL by students of more privilege than those it historically served. We discuss our concerns that as the Utah model spreads nationwide, the gentrification process threatens to position DL as the next wave in a broad pattern of inequitably distributed enrichment education within U.S. schools. We recommend steps toward avoiding this inequitable outcome.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Monanglicization builds on the term Anglicization, language shift toward English, more widely used outside the U.S. (Louw 2004).
References
Anderson, M. E. (2015a, November 2). The costs of English-only education. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/11/the-costs-of-english-only-education/413494/.
Anderson, M. E. (2015b, November 10). The economic imperative of bilingual education. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/11/bilingual-education-movement-mainstream/414912/.
Valdez, V. E., Delavan, G., & Freire, J. A. (2013). For whom is the dual language immersion boom?: The gentrification of strong forms of U.S. language education. Paper presented at a Paper session titled, “Social Justice Implications of Language Policies and Practices” at the annual meeting of the AERA. San Francisco, CA.
Valdez, V. E., Delavan, G., & Freire, J. A. (2014). The marketing of dual language education policy in Utah print media. Educational Policy. doi:10.1177/0895904814556750.
Baker, C. (2011). Historical introduction to bilingual education: The United States (updated by Wayne Wright). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (pp. 182–205). Tonawanda, NY: Multilingual Matters.
Baldauf, R. B. (2004, May 1–4). Language planning and policy: Recent trends, future directions. In Proceedings from American association of applied linguistics, Portland, OR. Retrieved from http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/eserv/UQ:24518/LPPCoPap1AAAL04.pdf.
Baldwin, A. Y. (2005). Identification concerns and promises for gifted students of diverse populations. Theory Into Practice, 44(2), 105–114.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). New York, NY: Greenword Press.
Brisk, M. E. (2005). Bilingual education: From compensatory to quality schooling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Carter, P. L., & Welner, K. G. (Eds.). (2013). Closing the opportunity gap: What America must do to give every child an even chance. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). (2011). Directory of foreign language immersion programs in U.S. schools. Retrieved from http://webapp.cal.org/Immersion/.
Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). (2015). Directory of two-way bilingual immersion programs in the U.S. Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/twi/directory.
Cervantes-Soon, C. G. (2014). A critical look at dual language immersion in the New Latin@ diaspora. Bilingual Research Journal, 37(1), 64–82.
Coates, R. D. (Ed.). (2011). Covert racism: Theories, institutions, and experiences. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV.
Conley, M. (2009, December 17). Utah is dedicated to creating a global workforce: An interview with Gregg Roberts, World Languages Specialist Utah State Office of Education. [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.mandarininstitute.org/articles/Utah_is_Dedicated_to_Creating_a_Global_Workforce.
Crawford, J. (2007). Hard sell: Why is bilingual education so unpopular with the American public? In O. García & C. Baker (Eds.), Bilingual education: An introductory reader (pp. 145–161). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Critical Languages Program Rule. (2012). Utah Administrative Rule R277-488-4. Retrieved from http://www.rules.utah.gov/publicat/code/r277/r277-488.htm.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
De Mejía, A. (2002). Power, prestige, and bilingualism: International perspectives on elite bilingual education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Dobnik, V. (2007, September 3). More U.S. schools teaching in two or more languages. Daily Herald, p. A3.
Dorner, L. M. (2015). From global jobs to safe spaces: The diverse discourses that sell multilingual schooling in the U.S. Current Issues in Language Planning, 16, 114–131.
Duchêne, A., & Heller, M. (2012). Language in late capitalism: Pride and profit. New York, NY: Routledge.
Esquierdo, J. J., & Arreguín-Anderson, M. (2012). The “invisible” gifted and talented bilingual students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 35(1), 35–47.
Fairclough, N. (2006). Language and globalization. New York, NY: Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (2014). Language and power. New York, NY: Routledge.
Flores, N. (2015). Has bilingual education been Columbused? (blog post) Retrieved from https://educationallinguist.wordpress.com/2015/01/25/columbising-bilingual-education/.
Flores, S. Y., & Murillo, E. G, Jr. (2001). Power, language, and ideology: Historical and contemporary notes on the dismantling of bilingual education. Urban Review, 33(3), 183–206.
Ford, D. Y., & Grantham, T. C. (2003). Providing access for culturally diverse gifted students: From deficit to dynamic thinking. Theory Into Practice, 42(3), 217–225.
Gándara, P. (2010). Overcoming triple segregation. Educational Leadership, 68(3), 60–64.
Gándara, P., Losen, D., August, D., Uriarte, M., Gómez, M. C., & Hopkins, M. (2010). Forbidden language: A brief history of U.S. language policy. In P. Gándara & M. Hopkins (Eds.), Forbidden language: English learners and restrictive language policies (pp. 20–33). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
García, M. E. (2003). Recent research on language maintenance. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 23, 22–43. doi:10.1017/S0267190503000175.
Gee, J. P. (2012). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Gould, A. M., & Robert, M. (2013). The neoliberal pea and thimble trick. Advances in Applied Sociology, 3(01), 79–84.
Griffiths, M. (1998). Educational research for social justice: Getting off the fence. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Hamayan, E., Genesee, F., & Cloud, N. (2013). Dual language instruction from A to Z: Practical guidance for teachers and administrators. Portsmouth, ME: Heinemann.
Heller, M. (2003). Globalization, the new economy, and the commodification of language and identity. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 473–492.
Howard, E. R., Sugarman, J., Christian, D., Lindholm-Leary, K. J., & Rogers, D. (2007). Guiding principles for dual language education. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Hurd, C. (2008). Cinco de Mayo, normative whiteness, and the marginalization of Mexican-descent students. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 39(3), 293–313.
Kleinsasser, A. M. (2000). Researchers, reflexivity, and good data: Writing to unlearn. Theory into Practice, 39(3), 155–162.
Lambert, P. (2009). Presentation: Achievement gap report. Salt Lake City, UT: Utah State Office of Education. Retrieved from http://www.schools.utah.gov/data/Reports/Assessment/AchievementGap.aspx.
Leite, J., & Cook, R. (2015). Utah: Making immersion mainstream. In P. Mehisto & F. Genesee (Eds.), Building bilingual education systems (pp. 83–96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lenker, A. & Rhodes, N. (2007). Foreign language immersion programs: Features and trends over thirty-five years. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/flimmersion.html.
Lindholm-Leary, K. J., & Borsato, G. (2006). Academic achievement. In F. Genesee, K. Lindholm-Leary, W. Saunders, & D. Christian (Eds.), Educating English language learners: A synthesis of research evidence (pp. 176–222). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Lindholm-Leary, K., & Hernández, A. (2011). Achievement and language proficiency of Latino students in dual language programmes: Native English speakers, fluent English/previous ELLs, and current ELLs. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 32(6), 531–545.
Lindholm-Leary, K. J., & Howard, E. R. (2008). Language development and academic achievement in two-way immersion programs. In T. W. Fortune & D. J. Tedick (Eds.), Pathways to multilingualism: Evolving perspectives on immersion education (pp. 177–200). Oxford: Blackwell.
Linton, A., & Franklin, R. C. (2010). Bilingualism for the children: Dual-language programs under restrictive language policies. In P. Gándara & M. Hopkins (Eds.), Forbidden language (pp. 175–191). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Losen, D. J., & Orfield, G. (Eds.). (2002). Racial inequity in special education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Louw, P. E. (2004). Anglicising postapartheid South Africa. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 25(4), 318–332. doi:10.1080/01434630408666535.
Macedo, D., Dendrinos, B., & Gounari, P. (2003). The hegemony of English. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.
Marian, V., Shook, A., & Schroeder, S. R. (2013). Bilingual two-way immersion programs benefit academic achievement. Bilingual Research Journal, 36, 167–186.
Marty, G. (2014. Spring/Summer). A state of immersion: Minnesota is a leader in developing language immersion programs that work. Connect (University of Minnesota).
Maxwell, L.A. (2015, June 24). Momentum builds for dual-language learning. Education Week. Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2012/03/23/26duallanguage_ep.h31.html.
Montgomery County Education Forum. (2002). Success for every student? Tracking and the achievement gap. Retrieved from http://www.mcef.org/Position%20Paper%20PDF.pdf.
Morales, P. Z., Rao, A. B. (2015, September 28). How ideology and cultural capital shape the distribution of Illinois’ bilingual education programs. Teachers College Record (ID Number: 18139). Retrieved from http://www.tcrecord.org.
Museus, S. D., Palmer, R. T., Davis, R. J., & Maramba, D. (2011). Racial and ethnic minority students’ success in STEM education. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Periodicals Inc.
Oakland, T., & Rossen, E. (2005). A 21st-century model for identifying students for gifted and talented programs in light of national conditions: An emphasis on race and ethnicity. Gifted Child Today, 28(4), 56–63.
Olssen, M., Codd, J., & O’Neill, A. M. (2004). Education policy: Globalization, citizenship, democracy. London: Sage.
Palmer, D. K. (2010). Race, power, and equity in a multiethnic urban elementary school with a dual-language “strand” program. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 41, 94–114.
Pandya, C., Batalova, J., & McHugh, M. (2011). Limited English proficient individuals in the United States: Number, share, growth, and linguistic diversity. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.
Pérez, B., & Flores, B. B. (2002). Biliteracy development in two-way immersion classrooms. National Reading Conference Yearbook, 51, 357–367.
Peters, M. (2001). National education policy constructions of the “knowledge economy”: Towards a critique. Journal of Educational Enquiry, 2(1), 1–22.
Petrovic, J. E. (2005). The conservative restoration and neoliberal defenses of bilingual education. Language Policy, 4, 395–416. doi:10.1007/s10993-00502880y.
Pease-Pretty On Top, J. (n.d.). Native American language immersion: Innovative native education for children and families. Denver, CO: American Indian College Fund. Retrieved from http://www.collegefund.org/userfiles/file/ImmersionBook.pdf.
Portland Public Schools. (2015). Dual language [webpage with embedded videos]. Retrieved from http://www.pps.k12.or.us/departments/immersion/index.htm.
Reardon, S. (2011). The widening achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In G. J. Duncan & R. J. Murnane (Eds.), Whither opportunity? (pp. 91–116). New York, NY: Russell Sage.
Rebell, M. A., & Wolff, J. R. (2012). Educational opportunity is achievable and affordable. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(6), 62–65.
Roberts, G., & Wade, O. (2012, Fall). Utah’s quest to mainstream dual language immersion for all students. Soleado: A Publication of Dual Language Education of New Mexico. Retrieved from www.dlenm.org/images/DLENM_soleado/2012.Fall.Soleado.pdf.
Rogers, R. (2004). An introduction to critical discourse analysis in education. In R. Rogers (Ed.), Critical discourse analysis in education (pp. 1–18). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rolstad, K., Mahoney, K. S., & Glass, G. V. (2005). Weighing the evidence: A meta-analysis of bilingual education in Arizona. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(1), 43–67.
Scanlan, M., & Palmer, D. (2009). Race, power, and (in)equity within two-way immersion settings. Urban Review, 41(5), 391–415. doi:10.1007/s11256-008-0111-0.
Shannon, S. (1995). The hegemony of English: A case study of one bilingual classroom as a site of resistance. Linguistics and Education, 7(3), 177–202.
Speaking in Tongues. (2010, August 25). Lessons from Utah: How a ‘red state’ is building thriving language immersion programs. Blog post with email interview transcript retrieved from http://speakingintonguesfilm.info/category/language-immersion/.
Stuart, E. (2010, July 7). Utah trying out dual-language immersion classes. Deseret News. Retrieved from http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700045187/Utah-trying-out-dual-language-immersion-classes.html?pg=all.
Thiesmeyer, L. (2003). Introduction: Silencing in discourse. In L. Thiesmeyer (Ed.), Discourse and silencing. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing.
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students’ long-term academic achievement. Santa Cruz, CA: Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence, University of California-Santa Cruz. Retrieved at http://repositories.cdlib.org/crede/finalrpts/1_1_final.
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2012). Dual language education for a transformed world. Albuquerque, NM: Dual Language Education of New Mexico-Fuente Press.
Tollefson, J. W. (2006). Critical theory in language policy. In T. Ricento (Ed.), Introduction to language policy: Theory and method (pp. 42–59). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
Tollefson, J. W., & Tsui, A. B. M. (2014). Language diversity and language policy in educational access and equity. Review of Research in Education, 38, 189–214.
Toomer-Cook, J. (2007, June 12). Students offered learning in 2 tongues. Deseret News. Retrieved from http://www.deseretnews.com/article/665192881/Students-offered-learning-in-2-tongues.html?pg=all.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2015). State and county quickfacts: Utah. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce. http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/49000.html.
Utah Administrative Code Rule R277-488 – Critical Languages Program (2012) (enacted).
Utah Senate Bill 41, Chapter 235, Laws of Utah (2008) (enacted).
Utah Senate Bill 80, Chapter 221, Laws of Utah (2007) (enacted).
Utah State Office of Education. (2013). Critical languages: Dual language immersion education appropriations report. Retrieved from www.schools.utah.gov/legislativematerials/2013/Critical_Language_Dual_Immersion_Legislative_Repor.aspx.
Utah State Office of Education. (2015a). Data reports—enrollment and demographics – school by grade, gender, and race/ethnicity—October 1, 2014 enrollment counts for school year 2014–15 [data file]. Utah State Office of Education Data & Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.schools.utah.gov/data/Reports/Enrollment-Demographics.aspx.
Utah State Office of Education. (2015b). Utah dual language immersion schools (2014-15 school year) [data file]. Utah State Office of Education, Dual Immersion. Retrieved from http://www.schools.utah.gov/curr/dualimmersion/.
Utah State Office of Education. (2015c). Utah dual language immersion. Utah State Office of Education, Teaching and Learning, Dual language immersion, Utah language roadmap for the 21st century [website]. Retrieved from http://www.schools.utah.gov/CURR/dualimmersion/Home/UtahLanguageRoadmap.aspx.
Valdés, G. (1997). Dual-language immersion programs: A cautionary note concerning the education of language-minority students. Harvard Educational Review, 67(3), 391–429.
Valentino, R., & Reardon, S. F. (2014). Effectiveness of four instructional programs designed to serve English language learners: Variation by ethnicity and initial English proficiency. Retrieved from https://cepa.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/Valentino_Reardon_EL%20Programs_14_0319.pdf.
Wentworth, L., Pellegrin, N., Thompson, K., & Hakuta, K. (2010). Proposition 227 in California: A long term appraisal of its impact on English learner student achievement. In P. Gándara & M. Hopkins (Eds.), Forbidden language: English learners and restrictive language policies (pp. 37–49). New York: Teachers College Press.
Wible, S. (2009). Composing alternatives to a national security language policy. College English, 71(5), 460-485. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25652986.
Wong Fillmore, L. (2000). Loss of family languages: Should educators be concerned? Theory into Practice, 39(4), 203–210. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip3904_3.
Zhang, Q. (2014, June 27). A trip to Chia changes a state’s education. China Daily USA. Retrieved from http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2014-06/27/content_17619810.htm.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
The authorship of this manuscript is credited equally to all three authors. Each contributed toward its conceptualization, data collection, analysis, and writing. An earlier version of this paper was first presented as For whom is the dual language immersion boom? The gentrification of strong forms of U.S. language education at the 2013 American Educational Research Association Annual Conference in San Francisco, CA.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Valdez, V.E., Freire, J.A. & Delavan, M. The Gentrification of Dual Language Education. Urban Rev 48, 601–627 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-016-0370-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-016-0370-0