Abstract
One aspect of the call for democracy in the recent Arab region uprisings is the issue of women’s rights and gender equality. Three cultural and ideological forces have continued to shape the gender discourse in Arab Muslim-majority societies. They are: “Islamic” teaching and local traditions concerning women’s roles in a given society; Western, European colonial perception of women’s rights; and finally national gender-related policy reforms. This paper examines the past and present status of women and gender-educational inequality in the Arab world with particular reference to Egypt and Tunisia, prior to and post colonialism. Special attention is given to colonial legacy and its influence on gender and education; to current gender practices in the social sphere with a focus on women’s modesty (hijab); to international policies and national responses with regard to women’s rights and finally to female participation in pre-university and higher education. These issues incorporate a discussion of cultural and religious constraints. The paper demonstrates similarities and differences between Egypt’s and Tunisia’s reform policies towards gender parity. It highlights the confrontation of conservative versus liberal ideologies that occurred in each country with the implementation of its gender-related reform policy.
Résumé
Héritage colonial, droits des femmes et inégalité des sexes dans l’enseignement au sein du monde arabe, notamment en Égypte et Tunisie – L’un des aspects de la revendication démocratique exprimée lors des récentes révoltes dans le monde arabe porte sur les droits des femmes et l’égalité entre les sexes. Trois influences culturelles et idéologiques continuent à marquer le discours sur l’égalité des sexes dans les sociétés arabes à majorité musulmane : l’enseignement « islamique » et les traditions locales quant aux rôles des femmes dans une société donnée ; la perception occidentale, reposant sur la colonisation européenne, des droits des femmes ; enfin, les réformes des politiques nationales relatives à l’égalité des sexes. Les auteurs de l’article examinent le statut ancien et actuel des femmes ainsi que l’inégalité des sexes dans l’enseignement du monde arabe, en se référant en particulier à l’Égypte et à la Tunisie, et ce avant et après le colonialisme. Ils se penchent notamment sur les aspects suivants : l’héritage colonial et son influence sur l’égalité des sexes dans l’enseignement ; les pratiques actuelles d’égalité des sexes dans la sphère sociale en abordant en particulier la pudeur féminine (hijab) ; les politiques internationales relatives aux droits des femmes et leurs réponses nationales ; enfin, la participation féminine à l’enseignement préuniversitaire et supérieur. Ces thèmes induisent une discussion sur les contraintes culturelles et religieuses. L’article illustre les similitudes et les différences entre les politiques réformatrices en faveur de la parité des sexes en Égypte et en Tunisie. Il éclaire la confrontation des idéologies conservatrices et libérales, qui survient dans tout pays appliquant une politique de réforme liée à l’égalité des sexes.
Zusammenfassung
Koloniales Erbe, Frauenrechte und die Benachteiligung von Frauen in den Bildungssystemen der arabischen Welt unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Ägyptens und Tunesiens – Die Forderung nach Demokratie im Zuge der jüngsten Volksaufstände in der arabischen Region beinhaltet unter anderem auch den Aspekt der Frauenrechte und der Gleichstellung der Geschlechter. Der Geschlechter-Diskurs in den vom Islam dominierten arabischen Gesellschaften wird seit Langem durch drei kulturelle und ideologische Kräfte geprägt. Nämlich: Die „islamische“ Lehre und die lokalen Traditionen bezüglich der Frauenrollen in einer bestehenden Gesellschaft, die westliche, europäisch-koloniale Wahrnehmung von Frauenrechten und schließlich einzelstaatliche politische Reformen, die sich auf die Geschlechterrollen beziehen. Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Ägyptens und Tunesiens werden in diesem Artikel die Stellung der Frau früher und heute und ihre Benachteiligung in den Bildungssystemen in der arabischen Welt vor und nach der Kolonialisierung untersucht. Besondere Beachtung finden das koloniale Erbe und dessen Auswirkungen auf Gender und Bildung, die aktuellen geschlechtsspezifischen Gepflogenheiten in der gesellschaftlichen Sphäre, hier vor allem die weibliche Bescheidenheit (hijab), sodann die internationale Praxis und die nationalen Reaktionen im Hinblick auf die Rechte der Frau und schließlich die Partizipation von Mädchen und Frauen im Bereich der Hochschulvorbereitung und der Hochschulausbildung. Dazu gehört auch eine Diskussion kultureller und religiöser Zwänge. In dem Artikel wird aufgezeigt, worin sich die politischen Reformen zur Förderung der Geschlechterparität in Ägypten und Tunesien ähnlich sind und worin sie sich unterscheiden. Insbesondere wird auch auf die Konfrontation zwischen konservativen und liberalen Ideologien im Zuge der Umsetzung der Reformpolitik zur Gleichstellung der Geschlechter in beiden Ländern eingegangen.
Resumen
Legado colonial, derechos de la mujer y desigualdad de género en la educación en el mundo árabe, con especial referencia a Egipto y Túnez – Entre los reclamos de democracia en los recientes levantamientos en la región árabe aparecen los derechos de la mujer y la igualdad de géneros. Tres fuerzas culturales e ideológicas han estado delineando el discurso de género en las sociedades con mayoría árabe y musulmana: las enseñanzas “islámicas” y las tradiciones locales concernientes al papel que debe desempeñar la mujer en una sociedad determinada; la percepción occidental, europeo-colonial de los derechos de la mujer, y, finalmente, las reformas nacionales relacionadas con políticas de género. En este trabajo, los autores examinan la situación pasada y actual de la mujer y de la desigualdad de género en la educación en el mundo árabe, con particular referencia a Egipto y Túnez, pre y postcoloniales. Los autores otorgan especial atención al legado colonial y su influencia sobre temas de género y educación; a las actuales costumbres de género en la esfera social, enfocadas en la modestia femenina (hijab); a políticas internacionales y respuestas nacionales en cuanto a los derechos femeninos y, finalmente, a la participación femenina en la educación preuniversitaria y superior. Estos temas también abordan las presiones culturales y religiosas. Este trabajo muestra similitudes y diferencias entre las políticas de reformas de Egipto y de Túnez que se encauzan a la igualdad de géneros. Y también realza el enfrentamiento entre ideologías conservadoras y liberales que se produjo en cada país con la implementación de su correspondiente política de reformas relacionadas con temas de género.
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Notes
Provinces are called governorates in Egypt.
British Consul-General in Egypt from 1883–1907.
Susan Douglass and Munir Shaikh (2004, p. 5) explain that “Muslims and non-Muslims alike frequently use the adjective, Islamic, to elevate cultural expressions to the position of normative or consummate institutions or practices … [P]ublic commentators often fail to make any distinction between that which pertains directly to Islam and its doctrines, and actions its adherents perform in the cultural or social realm.”
For example, the majority of Muslim women wear the hijab, some by personal choice such as in Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and others. But in Saudi Arabia, law prescribes wearing of the hijab. The scope of reasons why Muslim women cover their heads (and other parts of their bodies) is wide, ranging from personal choice or duty to God to coercion/oppression by family members, religious leaders and/or government officials.
“Tunisia is often viewed as one of the most progressive Islamic states. While the Constitution stipulates that the president must be Muslim and the state religion is Islam, the government has also taken steps to secularize the country and move society away from Islamic fundamentalism” (International Women’s Rights Action Watch 2002).
Brandt and Kaplan explain that “Law No. 44, promulgated in 1979, represented a leap forward in Egypt’s personal status laws. It required husbands to obtain notarized certificates of divorce – though they were still entitled to divorce without judicial approval by simply repudiating the marriage before a witness – and gave wives the right to be informed of a husband's decision to divorce or marry an additional wife (Islamic law permits a man to marry up to four wives). Significantly, Law No. 44, following the Hanafi view of Islamic jurisprudence, gave the wife a right to divorce if she was not informed of a subsequent marriage or if it harmed her, though court approval was not necessary for husbands to enter polygamous marriages. By right, a wife could seek a legal separation if continued married life caused her unbearable harm” (Brandt and Kaplan 1995, p. 112).
A young Egyptian woman who attended university felt that the veil offered her the freedom to pursue her education without facing shame or criticism. Before wearing the veil she was uncomfortable talking to men outside the classroom from fear of public opinion, however after deciding to wear the veil she felt greater security, and took comfort from the fact that no one was going to accuse her of immorality (Mule and Barthel 1992).
Article 15 articulates that “States Parties shall accord to women, in civil matters, a legal capacity identical to that of men and the same opportunities to exercise that capacity. In particular, they shall give women equal rights to conclude contracts and to administer property and treat them equally in all stages of procedure in courts and tribunals” (UN 2009a).
The SPU 2010 report states that percentages of female participation in higher education are lower still in Egyptian provinces such as Assiut, Suez Canal and Aswan, where in 2005/2006 female enrolments were 34 per cent, 41 per cent and 40 per cent respectively (ibid., p. 32). The report further explains that women’s enrolment in higher education is influenced mostly by the unequal distribution of higher education institutions across provinces. Thus, it is unsurprising to find the lowest female enrolment rates in the Upper Egypt provinces which are not only the poorest in the country but considered socially and culturally to be more conservative and protective toward women (Megahed 2010b).
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Megahed, N., Lack, S. Colonial legacy, women’s rights and gender-educational inequality in the Arab World with particular reference to Egypt and Tunisia. Int Rev Educ 57, 397–418 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-011-9215-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-011-9215-y