Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Colonialism and Gender in Africa

A Critical History

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
The Palgrave Handbook of African Women's Studies

Abstract

This chapter offers a critical account of the history of colonialism and gender on the African continent, paying attention to the diversities and complexities which these two social and political processes produced in their interaction with one another across space and time. While historians and feminist writers have elucidated the complementary roles of men and women in pre-colonial African periods, the process of pacification and establishment of colonial administration had profound implications on existing intergroup structures. Colonial institutions gave more recognition to men than were given to women. Colonialism thus affected different aspects of African females’ lives in relation to their male counterparts in the society. This chapter thus examines the import of the colonial enterprise for gender identification, gender roles, and gender stratification in Africa using historical lens. While it is acknowledged that gender is not just a synonym for women, but also applies to men and masculinity, emphasis is placed on women in the discussion of how power is shaped by gender relations and resistance to colonial rule and the ways in which the colonialists specifically ignored women in Africa, serving as a precursor to current inequities in gender relations. The chapter utilizes examples from within African communities in Africa to illustrate its points in respect of the complex interfaces of colonialism and gender in historical and contemporary perspective.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adeniji, O. B. (2007). Constraints to improved cotton production in Katsina state, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences, 7, 1647–1651. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2007.1647.1651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • African Union. (2009). African Union Gender Policy. Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/gender_policy_2009.pdf/

  • Agatha, M. (2006). The Role of Women in Peacebuilding and Conflict Resolution in African Traditional Societies. Retrieved from: http://www.afrikaworld.net/afrel/chinwenwoye.html/

  • Agbaje, F. I. (2016). The contributions of women toward peacemaking in selected communities in Ekiti state, Nigeria. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the Institute for Peace and Strategic Studies, University of Ibadan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agbaje, F. I. (2017). Tribunals as instruments for peacemaking among Ekiti women in traditional settings in Southwestern Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced and Multidisciplinary Social Science, 3(3), 55–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agu, U., Evoh, O., & Chijioke, J. (2015). Binding constraints to inclusive and job-rich growth in Nigeria: A review of macro and sector policies and strategies. Abuja: ILO Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahluwalia, P. (1999). Citizenship, subjectivity and the crisis of modernity. Social Identities, 5(3), 313–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alpern, S. B. (1998). Amazons of black Sparta: The women warriors of Dahomey. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amadiume, I. (1998). Re-inventing Africa: Matriarchy, religion and culture. London: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anunobi, F. (1988). Women and development in Africa. London: Zed Publication.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anunobi, F. O. (1992). The Implications of Conditionality: The International Monetary Fund and Africa. Lanham: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anunobi, F. O. (1994). International dimensions of African political economy. Maryland: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anunobi, F. O. (1997). The theoretical foundation of international political. Maastricht: Maxwell International Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anunobi, F. O. (2002). Women and development in Africa: From marginalization to gender inequality. African Social Science Review, 2(2), 3. Retrieved from: https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/assr/vol2/iss2/3/

  • Ardener, S. (1977). Defining females: The nature of women in the society. London: Oxford University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardener, S. (1993). Ground rules and social maps for women: An introduction: Women and space: Ground rules and social maps. In S. Ardener (Ed.), Cross-cultural perspectives on women. Berg: Providence.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aseka, E. M. (2001). Ideologies and ideological movement. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved from: http://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/aseka.pdf

  • Awe, B. (1992). Nigerian women in historical perspective. Ibadan: Polygraphic Ventures Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Awe, B. A. (2001) Iyalode Efunsetan Aniwura (Owner of Gold). In Bolanle Awe (Ed.), Nigerian women: a historical perspective (2nd ed.). Ibadan: Polygraphic Ventures Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, S. (1866). Albert N’yanza: Great Basin Nile Explorations Nile Sources. New York: Horizon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biko, S. (1998). Some African cultural concepts. In P. H. Coetzee & A. J. P. Roux (Eds.), Philosophy from Africa: A text with readings. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloch, M., & Bloch, H. (1980). Women and the dialectics of nature in eighteenth century French thought. In C. P. Mac Cormack & M. Strathern (Eds.), Nature culture and gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boserup, E. (1970). Women’s role in economic development. London: George Allen and Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradford, H. (1996). Women, gender and colonialism: Rethinking the history of the British Cape colony and its frontier zones, c. 1806–70. The Journal of African History, 37(3), 351–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. (1988). Manhood and politics. A feminist reading in political theory. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bujra, J. (1986). Urging women to redouble their efforts: Class, gender and capitalist transformation in Africa. In C. Robertson & I. Berger (Eds.), Women and class in Africa (pp. 117–140). New York: Africana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and subversion of identity. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bvukutwa, G. (2014). Gender equality is not a western notion. Retrieved from: https://thisisafrica.me/gender-equality-western-notion

  • Caldwell, J. C., & Caldwell, P. (1987). The cultural context of high fertility in sub-Saharan Africa. Population and Development Review, 13(3), 409–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carney, B. M. J. (1988). Gender role in African development. New York: Africana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charlton, S. E., Everet, J., & Staudt, K. (1989). Women, the state, and development. Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charmaine, P. (2005). Gender, sexuality and colonialism. Cape Town: African Gender Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, C. M., Manuh, T., & Miescher, S. F. (2007). Africa after gender? Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornwall, A. (2005). Readings in gender in Africa. London: The International Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutrufelli, M. R. (1983). Women of Africa: Roots of oppression. London: Zed Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, B. (2014). West Africa before the colonial era: A history to 1850. London: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Davison, J. (1988a). Agriculture, women, and land: The African experience. Boulder: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davison, J. (1988b). “Who owns what?” land registration and tensions in gender relations of production in Kenya. Boulder: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denzer, L. (1994). Yoruba women: A historiographical study. International Journal of African Historical Studies, 27(1), 1–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denzer, L. (1998). The Iyalode in Ibadan Politics and Society (pp. 185–199). Ibadan University: Doortmont.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dwayne, W. (2017). The colonial roots of Africa’s gender inequality. Retrieved from: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/dwayne-wong-omowale/the-colonial-roots-of-afr_b_9486702.html

  • Edgerton, R. B. (1988). Like lions they fought: The Zulu war and the last Black empire in South Africa. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekechi, F. (2002). The consolidation of colonial rule, 1885–1914. In T. Falola (Ed.), Colonial Africa, 1885–1939, Vol. 3 of Africa. Durham: Carolina Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elson, D. (1989). The impact of structural adjustment on women. In O. Bade (Ed.), The IMF, The World Bank and The African Debt. The social and political impact. London: Zed Book.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emecheta, B. (1974). Second class citizen. London: Fontana African Fiction.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enabulele, A. B. (1985). The role of women’s associations in Nigeria’s development: Social welfare perspective. In Women in Nigeria Today (pp. 187–194). London: Zed Book.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fadipe, N. A. (1970). The sociology of the Yoruba. Ibadan: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falola, T., & Amponsah, N. A. (2012). Women’s roles in sub-Saharan Africa (Women’s roles through history). Santa Barbara: Greenwood/ABC, CLIO/LLC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falola, T., & Genova, A. (2009). Historical dictionary of Nigeria. In W. Jon (Ed.), Historical dictionaries of Africa (Vol. CXI). Lanham: Scarecrow Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, K. E. (1990). Women, feminism, and development. In K. Staudt (Ed.), Women, international politics, and development: The bureaucratic mire. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, D. (2014). Survival strategy or business training ground? The significance of urban agriculture for the advancement of women in African cities. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.2307/525171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frelimo-Frente de Libertacao de Mocambique. (1983). Out of under-development to socialism. Maputo: Maputo Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallin, R. S., & Ferguson, A. (1991). The women and international development. Boulder: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gladwin, C., & Due, J. M. (1991). The impacts of structural adjustment on African women farmers. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 73(5), 1431–1439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, A. A., & Gordon, D. (1996). Understanding contemporary Africa. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, R. (1975). The political economy of Africa. London: Halstead Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson, D. L., & Sheryl, A. M. (2001). “Wicked” women and the reconfiguration of gender in Africa. Portsmouth: Heinemann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ibhawoh, B. (2010). Toyin Falola. Colonialism and violence in Nigeria. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Idowu, E. B. (1973). African traditional religion. London: SCM Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irukwu, E. (1994). Footprints: The evolution of the Nigerian women. Lagos: Talkback Publishers Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iweriebor, E. G. (2002). The psychology of colonialism. In The end of colonial rule: Nationalism and decolonization of Africa. Durham: Carolina Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C. (1982). Grass roots organizing: Women in anticolonial activity in southwestern Nigeria. African Studies Review, 25(2/3). Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org.proxy-remote.galib.uga.edu/stable/4065400

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kabira, W. M., & Nzioki, E. A. (1993). Celebrating women’s resistance: A case study of women’s groups movement in Kenya. East African Medical Journal, 68(9), 714–719.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kang’ethe, S. M., & Nomngcoyiya, T. (2017). An exploration of subjugation of women among the communities practising traditional male circumcision rite in eastern cape, South Africa. Journal of Human Ecology, 54(2), 124–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazeem, Y. (2016). Nigerian lawmakers voted down a women equality bill citing the bible and sharia law. Retrieved from: https://qz.com/africa/639763/. Accessed 16 July 2019.

  • Keller, E. F. (1990). Gender and science. In Feminist research methods. London: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimble, D. (1963). A political history of Ghana: The rise of gold coast nationalism, 1850–1928. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, U. (1995). Religion and Gender. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kisiang’ani, E. N. W. (1995). Decolonizing gender studies in Africa. Dakar: CODESRIA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langley, P. (1983). A preliminary approach to women and development. In S. Gerard (Ed.), The roles of women in the process of development. Douala: Pan-African Institute of Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lima, T. (1994). Women’s Co-ops Spur Mozambican Farmers Union. African Farmers, 11(April), 16–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longmore, L. (1959). The dispossessed. London: Cape Publication.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longwe, S. H. (1990). From welfare to empowerment: The situation of women in development in Africa. A post-UN women’s decade update and future directions’, Working Paper, Michigan State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, M. (1989). Gender relations, class formation, and the colonial state. In J. Parpart & K. Staudt (Eds.), Women and the state in Africa. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magirosa, M. (2015). Effects of colonisation on Zimbabwean women. Retrieved from: https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/effects-of-colonisation-of-zimbabwean-women/

  • Mamdani, M. (1996). Citizen and subject: Contemporary Africa and the legacy of colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, A., & Arnot, M. (2007). The gender agenda: The limits and possibilities of global and national citizenship education. World Studies in Education, 7(2), 81–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mba, N. E. (1982). Nigerian women mobilized. Berking: University of California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mbilinyi, M. (1990). Structural adjustment, agribusiness, and rural women in Tanzania. London: Earthscan Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mbiti, J. S. (2007). The role of women in African traditional religion. London: Afrikaworld.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mcfadden, P. (1997). Challenges and prospects for the women’s movement in the 21st century. In Winkel (Ed.), Women in action (No. 1, 45645, pp 1–18). Missouri: PACH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meier zu Selhausen, F. (2014). Missionaries and female empowerment in colonial Uganda: New evidence from Protestant marriage registers, 1880–1945. Economic History of Developing Regions, 29(1), 74–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/20780389.2014.927110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morma, C. L. (1994). African women caught between new laws and social traditions. Christian science monitor (December) 1995. African Report, 40(January–February), 55–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morna, L. C., Tripp, A., & Konate, D. (1998). ‘Sub-Saharan Africa: on the fast track to women’s political representation’. In Dahlerup (Ed.), Women, Quotas and Politics (pp. 112–37). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munyakho, D. (1994). Kenyan women press for land rights. African Farmer, 8(April), 8–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murunga, V. (2018). Africa’s progress on gender equality and Women’s empowerment is notable but gender inequality persists. Nairobi: AFIDEP.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mutume, G. (2005). African women battle for equality. Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/july-2005/african-women-battle-equality

  • Nelson, N. (1988). How women and men get by: The sexual division of labour in the informal sector of a Nairobi squatter settlement. In R. Bromley & C. Gerry (Eds.), Casual work and poverty in third world cities (pp. 283–302). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newland, K. (1991). From transnational relationships to international relations: Women in development and the international decade for women. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298880170030201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nwakawo, A. (1997). Gender and state in Africa. Ibadan: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nweke, T. (1989). Women in Nigerian society: The media women in Nigeria today. London: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nzomo, M., & Kibwana, K. (1993). Women’s initiatives in Kenya’s democratization. Nairobi: Type Design.

    Google Scholar 

  • Obadina, E. (1985). How relevant is the western women s liberation movement for Nigeria? London: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oguntuyi, A. O. (1979). History of Ekiti. Ibadan: Bisi Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olademo, O. (2009). Gender in Yoruba oral tradition. Lagos: CBAAC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osterhammel, J. (2005). Colonialism: A theoretical overview (trans: Frisch S.). Princeton: Markus Weiner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osuntokun, J. (1977). West African armed revolts during the first world war. Tarikh, 5(3), 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyebade, A. (2002). Colonial political systems. In T. Falola (Ed.), Colonial Africa, 1885–1939. Durham: Carolina Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyewumi, O. (1997). The invention of women: Making an African sense of western gender discourses. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, M. (1991). Political development. Alaska: Peacock Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pankhurst, D., & Jacobs, S. (1988). Land tenure, gender relations, and agricultural production: The case of Zimbabwe’s peasantry. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/160573

  • Parpart, J. L. (1989). Women and the state in Africa. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 22(4), 713–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peel, J. D. Y. (1977). Olaju: A Yoruba concept of development. Journal of Development Studies, 14(2), 139–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Philips, R. (2005). Heterogeneous imperialism and the regulation of sexuality in British West Africa. Journal of the History of Sexuality, 14(3), 219–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reade, W. (1864). Savage Africa; being the narrative of a tour in equatorial, southwestern and northwestern Africa. New York: Harper and Brothers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, A. (1982). Chisungu: A girl’s initiation ceremony among the Bemba of Zambia. London: Tavistock.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowley, H. (1867). The story of the universities·Mission to central Africa. London: Saunders and Otley Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Safilios-Rothchild, C. (1990). Women’s groups: An underutilized grassroots institution. Retrieved form: http://library.wur.nl

  • Santoru, M. E. (1996). The colonial idea of women and direct intervention: The Mau Mau Case. African Affairs, 95(379), 257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, E. (1998). Men, women and the law in colonial Zimbabwe, 1890–1939. Journal of Southern African Studies, 16(4), 622–648.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, C. V. (1995). Gender and development: Rethinking modernization and dependency theory. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selhausen, F. M. Z., & Weisdorf, J. (2015). A colonial legacy of African gender inequality? Evidence from Christian Kampala, 1895–2011. The Economic History Review, 69(1), 229–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. (2017). Women and colonialism. London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, T. (2015). Voices of decolonization: A brief history with documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sofola, Z. (1998). Feminism and African womanhood in sisterhood. In O. Nnaemeka (Ed.), Feminism and power from Africa to the Diaspora (pp. 51–64). Trenton: African World Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staudt, K. (1987). Women’s politics, the state and capitalist transformation in Africa. In L. Markovitz (Ed.), Studies in power and class in Africa (pp. 193–208). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stilwell, S. (2002). The imposition of colonial rule. In T. Falola (Ed.), Colonial Africa, 1885–1939 (Vol. 3). Durham: Carolina Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strobel, M. (1982). African women. Signs, 8(1), 109–131. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuart, C. (1958). Congo song. New York: Monarch, Daily Nation, Nairobi, April 26, p. 51. Retrieved from: https://www.google.com.ng/search?q=Stuart/

    Google Scholar 

  • Sudarkasa, N. (2005). The status of women in indigenous African societies. In C. Andrea (Ed.), Readings in gender in Africa. London: International African.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tignor, R. (2005). Preface to colonialism: A theoretical overview. Markus: Weiner Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tripp. A. M. (1991). Women and democratization in Africa: Reflections on the Tanzania case. Paper presented at the African Studies Association, St. Louis, Missouri, November, 23–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ukaegbu, A. O. (1976). The role of traditional marriage habits in population growth: The case of rural eastern Nigeria. Journal of African International Institute, 46(4), 390–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNDP. (2018). Sustainable development goals. Retrieved from: http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html

  • UNESCO. (2018). 2018 global reports. Retrieved from: https://en.unesco.org/creativity/global-report-2018

  • United Nations (2010). Africa 2010. Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/pubs/2010era-uneca.pdf

  • Villalon, L. A., & Huxtable, P. A. (1997). African state at a critical juncture. London: Lynne & Rienner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vince, W. C., Santis, W., & Rosenblum, L. (2007). Involving Young People in Efforts to Combat HIV/AIDS In Africa: The Importance of Income-Generating Strategies. Newton MA: Educational Development Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vuorela, U. (1992). The informal sector, social reproduction, and the impact of the economic crisis on women. In C. Horrace & S. Howard (Eds.), Tanzania and the IMF: The dynamics of liberalisation. Boulder: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weekes-Vagliani, W. (1985). Women, food, and rural development. In R. Tore (Ed.), Crisis and recovery in sub-Saharan Africa. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weir, N. A. C. (1933). Intelligence reports: Ekiti Division Constitution of a Superior Native Authority for the Ekiti Division: Reorganisation-Ekiti Division, Ondo Prof.1/1:392, II).

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2017). Gender, equity and human rights. Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/gender-equity-rights/understanding/gender-definition/en/

  • Wittig, M. (1992). The straight mind and other essay. Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (1992). Annual report. Washington, DC: World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (1996). World development. Washington, DC: World Bank.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (2012). World development report 2012: gender equality and development. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Peace and Strategic Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

    Funmilayo Idowu Agbaje

Authors
  1. Funmilayo Idowu Agbaje
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Funmilayo Idowu Agbaje .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Babcock University , Ilishan Remo, Nigeria

    Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso

  2. Department of History, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Toyin Falola

Section Editor information

  1. Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria

    Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Agbaje, F.I. (2019). Colonialism and Gender in Africa. In: Yacob-Haliso, O., Falola, T. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of African Women's Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77030-7_3-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77030-7_3-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-77030-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-77030-7

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference HistoryReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Humanities

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation