Abstract
The basic structure and rhetoric of national language policy in multilingual Singapore has remained essentially unchanged since independence with four official languages positioned within the national quadrilingual framework and used in all public spheres, and individual bilingualism encouraged in the private sphere. However, also since independence, there has been an active undercurrent of inconsistencies, suggesting that the apparent top–down, uncontested language policy is in fact an active contested space, particularly in how these policies are implemented in schools. Specifically, we are interested in language shift, maintenance and medium of instruction policies, their consistencies and discontinuities. To understand the apparent tension between static quadrilingual language policy and planning and the dynamic reality of policy shifts, we adopt Bourdieu’s metaphor of field. In so doing, we take analyses beyond a Fishmanian domain-based framework (Fishman in La Linguist 1(2):67–88, 1965) which frequently informs language policy analysis in Singapore but fails to capture fully the paradoxical shifts and impacts that different fields have on each other with respect to language and the power dynamics involved (Savage and Silva in Cult Sociol 7(2):111–126, 2013. doi:10.1177/1749975512473992). We refer to Chinese and Indian language varieties as our primary examples, showing how a field analysis illuminates the different developments and paradoxes in policies for these languages.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Though the ‘national language’, Malay has little status at the national level beyond its ceremonial role (national anthem and military commands). Its symbolic significance has to do with how it signals Singapore’s regional identity, rather than alignment with China, in spite of its predominantly Chinese population. Nationally, its real significance is its position as mother-tongue of the Malay community, on par with the other official mother-tongue languages.
The education system is actually quadrilingual, echoing the national language policy (cf. Silver and Bokhorst-Heng 2016). However, we refer to the ‘bilingual education system’ emphasising that students must study at least two of the official languages.
We find the visualisation to be particularly resonant given Swartz’ explanation of the connection between fields and ‘rules of the game’: ‘Entry into the field requires the tacit acceptance of the rules of the game, meaning that specific forms of struggle are legitimated whereas others are excluded’ (Swartz 1997: 125).
Personal communication, Office of Sports and Recreation, Office of Student Affairs (17 February 2014); See also http://www.nus.edu.sg/osa/fac/sports-facilities/sports-facilities.
See May (2014) for an in depth exploration of this idea with reference to political theory and language policy.
Here and throughout this chapter we adopt the terminology of Singapore’s LPP, ‘dialects’ are all Chinese varieties other than Mandarin whereas ‘non-Tamil Indian Languages’ (NTILs) are five specific varieties associated with the Indian sub-continent.
Previously Ministry of Information and the Arts (MICA).
At the same time Fong (1983) notes that, while most Malays do speak Malay, ‘it is not so, however for the Indians and the Chinese. Here, the term ‘mother tongue’ does not have its normal denotation’ (p. 8).
References
Attorney-General’s Chambers, Singapore Government. (1965). Constitution of the Republic of Singapore. http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;ident=fadfb638-9566-417c-ae6b-b68384ce5834;page=0;query=DocId%3A%22cf2412ff-fca5-4a64-a8ef-b95b8987728e%22%20Status%3Ainforce%20Depth%3A0;rec=0#legis.
Bokhorst-Heng, W. D. (1999). Singapore’s speak mandarin campaign: Language ideological debates in the ‘imagining of the nation’. In J. Blommaert (Ed.), Language ideological debates (pp. 235–365). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bokhorst-Heng, W. D. (2002). Newspapers in Singapore: A mass ceremony in the imagining of the nation. Media Culture and Society, 24(4), 559–569.
Bokhorst-Heng, W. D. (2005). Debating singlish. Multilingua, 24(3), 185–209.
Bokhorst-Heng, W. D., Rubdy, R., McKay, S. L., & Alsagoff, L. (2010). Whose English? Language ownership in Singapore’s English language debates. In L. Lim, A. Pakir, & L. Wee (Eds.), English in Singapore: Modernity and management (Asian Englishes Today) (pp. 133–157). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Blommaert, J. (2015). Pierre bourdieu: perspectives on language in society. In J. L. Östman & J. Verschueren (Eds.), Handbook of pragmatics, 2015 (pp. 1–16). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. London: Routledge.
Bourdieu, P. (1990). The logic of practice. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. C. (1977). Reproduction in education, society and culture. London: Sage.
Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. J. D. (1992). The purpose of reflexive sociology. In P. Bourdieu & L. J. D. Wacquant (Eds.), An invitation to reflexive sociology (pp. 61–215). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Chua, S. C. (1962). State of Singapore: Report of the census of population, 1957. Singapore: Department of Statistics: Government Printing Office.
Curdt-Christiansen, X.-L. (2013). Family language policy: Sociopolitical reality versus linguistic continuity. Language Policy, 12(1), 1–6. doi:10.1007/s10993-012-9269-0.
Department of Statistics, Ministry of Trade and Industry. (2001). Singapore census of population 2000: Literacy and language, Chapter 4. http://www.singstat.gov.sg/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2000/census_2000_advance_data_release/chap4.pdf.
Department of Statistics. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Singapore. (2011). Census of population 2010. Statistical release 1. Key indicators of the resident population. http://www.singstat.gov.sg/publications/publications_and_papers/cop2010/census_2010_release1/indicators.pdf.
Department of Statistics. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Singapore. (2016). General household survey, 2015. www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/GHS/ghs2015/ghs2015.pdf.
Education Study Team. (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education, 1978 [a.k.a. Goh Report]. Singapore: Ministry of Education.
Fishman, J. A. (1965). Who speaks what language to whom and when? La Linguistique, 1(2), 67–88. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30248773.
Fong, S. C. (1983). Speech by Maj. Fong Sip Chee, Minister of State for Culture, at the opening of the SEAMEP RELC regional seminar on ‘New trends in language syllabus design’ at the RELC on 18 April 83 at 9.00am [Press release]. http://drm.a2o.nas.sg/DJVUServer/PdfStampServlet?app=stars&filepath=pdfdoc/fsc19830418s.pdf.
Gellner, E. (1983). Nations and nationalism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Giam, S. (2012, June 4). Building bridges with elderly through dialects. The Straits Times, p. A10. http://newshub.nus.edu.sg/news/1206/PDF/DIALECTS-st-4jun-pA10.pdf.
Goh, C. L. (2014, February 8). Saddling up for a galloping year/Connecting S’poreans to their Chinese roots. The Straits Times, p. D2.
Gopinathan, S., Ho, W. K., & Saravanan, V. (2004). Ethnicity management and language education policy: Towards a modified model of language education in Singapore schools. In A. E. Lai (Ed.), Beyond rituals and riots: Ethnic pluralism and social cohesion in Singapore (pp. 228–257). Singapore: Eastern Universities Press by Marshal Cavendish for Institute of Policy Studies.
Gorski, P. S. (2013a). Introduction: Bourdieu as a theorist of change. In P. S. Gorski (Ed.), Bourdieu and historical analysis (pp. 1–15). Durham and London: Duke University Press.
Gorski, P. S. (2013b). Conclusion. Bourdieusian theory and historical analysis. In P. S. Gorski (Ed.), Bourdieu and historical analysis (pp. 327–366). Durham and London: Duke University Press.
Grenfell, M. (2011). Bourdieu, language and linguistics. London: Continuum.
Hansard Parliamentary Debates (1992, March 17). Budget: Ministry of information and the arts. Parliament no. 8, Session 1. http://sprs.parl.gov.sg/search/topic.jsp?currentTopicID=00062762-ZZ¤tPubID=00069670-ZZ&topicKey=00069670-ZZ.00062762-ZZ_1%2Bid003_19920317_S0002_T00031-budget%2B.
Iswaran, S. (2009, August 15). Opening address by Mr S Iswaran, Senior Minister for Trade and Industry and Education at the SIM University Public Forum: ‘Crossing cultures, bridging minds: A role for Singapore’s language and literature’ on Saturday, at 1.40 pm. Retrieved from August 15, 2009. http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/2009/08/15/opening-address-by-mr-s-iswara.php.
Jenkins, R. (2002). Pierre Bourdieu (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Kwan, C. T. (1991, December 14). Dialect names can appear first in school records from next year. Trend shows parents prefer children to keep dialect surnames. The Straits Times, p. 1.
Kwok, D. J. (2005, January 26). Let cinemas screen dialect films again. Today, p. 22.
Lee, H. L. (1999). Ministerial speech 20th Jan 1999 in parliament on Chinese language in schools. Singapore: Ministry of Education. http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/1999/200199.htm.
Lee K. Y. (1979). Address by the Prime Minister Mr Lee Kuan Yew at the opening ceremony of the Promote the Use of Mandarin Campaign on 7 Sep 79 at Singapore Conference Hall. Document number: lky 19790907. Ministry of Culture. http://archivesonline.nas.sg/speeches/record-details/74209ba8-115d-11e3-83d5-0050568939ad.
Lee, K. Y. (2011). Speech by Mr Lee Kuan Yew, Former Minister Mentor and current Senior Advisor to Government of Singapore Investment Corporation at the Launch of the English Language Institute of Singapore (ELIS) on Tuesday, 6 September 2011, at the Marina Bay Sands Expo and Convention Centre. http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/2011/09/06/speech-by-mr-lee-kuan-yew-at-elis-launch.php.
Lee, P. (1979, September 24). ‘Yes’—A thousand hands say it. The Straits Times. p. B1.
Lewis, M. P., Simons, G. F., Fennig, C.D. (Eds.). (2013). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, TX: SIL International. http://www.ethnologue.com.
Lin, Y. (2008, April 21). Dialects spark new bonding. Mother tongues get fresh lease of life in schools. Today, p. 1.
May, S. (2011). Language Policy. In M. Grenfell (Ed.), Bourdieu, language and linguistics (pp. 147–169). London: Continuum.
May, S. (2014). Contesting public monolingualism and diglossia: Rethinking political theory and language policy for a multilingual world. Language Policy, 13, 371–393. doi:10.1007/s10993-014-9327-x.
Ministry of Education. (2007). Preparing students for a global future: Enhancing language learning [Press release]. http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/press/2007/pr20070307.htm.
Ministry of Education. (2012). Education in Singapore. Singapore: Ministry of Education. http://www.moe.gov.sg/about/files/moe-corporate-brochure.pdf.
Ministry of Education. (2014). Mother tongue language policy. http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/admissions/returning-singaporeans/mother-tongue-policy/.
Nelde, P., Strubell, M., & Williams, G. (1996). Euromosaic: The production and reproduction of the minority language groups of the EU. Luxembourg: Publications offices.
Ng, C. L. P. (2006). An evaluation of the Speak Mandarin Campaign within a dialect-speaking community (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Leicester, United Kingdom.
Ng, E. H. (2010). Speech by Dr Ng Eng Hen, Minister for Education and Second Minister for Defence, at Hindi Centres Day at 5.30 pm on Saturday, 24 July 2010 at Republic Cultural Centre, Republic Polytechnic. http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/2010/07/24/speech-by-dr-ng-eng-hen-at-hin.php.
Ng, C. L. P. (2011). Language planning in action: Singapore’s multilingual and bilingual policy. Ritsumeikan Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, (10), 1–12. http://nirr.lib.niigata-u.ac.jp/bitstream/10623/37564/1/1-RJAPS30_Singapores.pdf.
Ng, P. T. (2014). The global search for education: The world test? (Interview with Cathy Rubin, together with Tony Wagner and Randi Weingarten). United States: Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/c-m-rubin/the-global-search-for-edu_45_b_1749731.html.
No change in govt policy on Mandarin. (1992, December 19). The Straits Times, p. 26.
Oon, C. (2009, April 9). Dialects draw more new learners. The Straits Times. http://news.asiaone.com.
Promote Mandarin Council. (n.d.). In Facebook [Group page]. Retrieved from March 5, 2014. https://www.facebook.com/SpeakMandarinCampaign.
Rawolle, S., & Lingard, B. (2013). Bourdieu and educational research: Thinking tools, relational thinking, beyond epistemological innocence. In M. Murphy (Ed.), Social theory and education research: Understanding Foucault, Habermas, Bourdieu and Derrida (pp. 117–137). London: Routledge.
Saravanan, V. (1998). Language maintenance and language shift in the Tamil–English community. In S. Gopinathan, A. Pakir, W. K. Ho, & V. Saravanan (Eds.), Language, society and education in Singapore: Issues and trends (2nd ed., pp. 155–178). Singapore: Times Academic Press.
Savage, M., & Silva, E. B. (2013). Field analysis in cultural sociology. Cultural Sociology, 7(2), 111–126. doi:10.1177/1749975512473992.
Shah, S. (2013). Factors affecting proficiency among Gujarati heritage language learners on three continents (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.
Silver, R. E. (2005). The discourse of linguistic capital: Language and economic policy planning in Singapore. Language Policy, 34, 47–66.
Silver, R., & Bokhorst-Heng, W. D. (Eds.). (2016). Quadrilingual education in Singapore: Pedagogical innovation in language education. Springer Education Innovation Series. Singapore: Springer.
Singapore Federation of Chinese Clan Associations (2012). The history of clan associations in Singapore. www.sfcca.sg/en/node/446.
Speaking more Mandarin ‘will lessen problems’. (1981, June 9). The Straits Times, p. 11. http://newspapers.nl.sg/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19810609-1.2.82.aspx.
Stroud, C., & Wee, L. (2011). Style, identity and literacy: English in Singapore. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Swartz, D. (1997). Culture and power: The sociology of Pierre Bourdieu. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Swartz, D. (2013). Metaprinciples for sociological research in a Bourdieusian perspective. In P. S. Gorski (Ed.), Bourdieu and historical analysis (pp. 19–35). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Tan, J. (1980, November 20). In Tune with Speak Mandarin Drive. Pinyin names (In pre-primary and primary one classes) next year. The Straits Times, p. 1.
Tan, S. W. (1995). The manufacturing of social consent—the dynamics of language planning in Singapore. Working Papers on Language, Literature and Theatre, 8. Singapore: National University of Singapore.
Tharman, S. (2003). Speech by Mr. Tharman Shanmugaratnam, Acting Minister for Education, at the Singapore Sikh Education Foundation’s 14th anniversary celebrations and prize-giving ceremony, on Sunday, 23 November 2003 at 6.00 pm at the Regional Language Centre. http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/2003/sp20031124.htm.
Tharman, S. (2004). Speech by Mr Tharman Shanmugaratnam, Acting Minister for Education, at the prize presentation day of Singapore Gujarati School, on Sunday, 11 July 2004, at DBS Auditorium at 5.30 pm. http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/2004/sp20040711.htm.
Wacquant, L. (2004). Habitus. In J. Beckert & M. Zafirovski (Eds.), International encyclopedia of economic sociology (pp. 315–319). London: Routledge.
Webb, J., Schirato, T., & Danaher, G. (2002). Understanding Bourdieu. London: Sage Publishers.
Wee, L. (2003). Linguistic instrumentalism in Singapore. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 24(3), 211–224.
Wee, L. (2010). ‘Burdens’ and ‘handicaps’ in Singapore’s language policy: On the limits of language management. Language Policy, 1(2), 97–114.
Zhou, R.C. (n.d.). Dialects—where do they belong in our language environment? Institute of Policy Studies: IPS Commons. http://www.ipscommons.sg/index.php/categories/society/138-dialects-where-do-they-belong-in-our-language-environment.
Yeo, J. (2007, May 6). Students learn dialect to communicate with elderly. Channel News Asia. http://www.touch.org.sg/node/452.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bokhorst-Heng, W.D., Silver, R.E. Contested spaces in policy enactment: a Bourdieusian analysis of language policy in Singapore. Lang Policy 16, 333–351 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-016-9410-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-016-9410-6