Abstract
The current and rapid anthropogenic environmental changes could disproportionately impact ecosystems, particularly when they affect species with critical roles in ecosystem integrity. As top predators, raptors provide critical top-down ecosystem services and structure food webs. Yet, many avian predators are currently experiencing global population declines and some are threatened with extinction. The dire conservation status of numerous raptor species warrants urgent action, and detailed ecological data are needed to guide management strategy, including empirical knowledge regarding genetic structure. To that end, we compiled published studies investigating population genetic structure in raptors. Out of a total of 83 publications on 50 raptors species published, we identified a lack of empirical genetic studies for species from the Southern Hemisphere and species with a high level of extinction risk according to IUCN Red List criteria. Only 24% of the species studied are considered “threatened” (i.e., with the “Vulnerable”, “Endangered”, or “Critically Endangered” status). We found a significant signal of genetic differentiation in 41 species (82%) at the study-specific population. Isolation-by-Distance is a common pattern of genetic differentiation in raptors. Future steps in raptor conservation could prioritize facilitating genetic studies on species located in the Southern Hemisphere and on species with a conservation status. A better inclusion of some key genetic metrics (e.g., Ne, Ne/Nc, genetic diversity) in published studies will further help management and conservation across various species and ecosystems.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Database used in the article can be found on Figshare: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12455732 and the R script for figures https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12455759.
References
Agudo R, Rico C, Hiraldo F, Donázar JA (2011) Evidence of connectivity between continental and differentiated insular populations in a highly mobile species: genetic flow between island and continental vultures. Divers Distrib 17:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00724.x
Alcaide M, Edwards SV, Negro JJ (2007) Characterization, polymorphism, and evolution of MHC class II B genes in birds of prey. J Mol Evol 65:541–554
Alcaide M, Serrano D, Negro JJ et al (2009a) Population fragmentation leads to isolation by distance but not genetic impoverishment in the philopatric Lesser Kestrel: a comparison with the widespread and sympatric Eurasian Kestrel. Heredity 102:190–198. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2008.107
Alcaide M, Serrano D, Tella JL, Negro JJ (2009b) Strong philopatry derived from capture-recapture records does not lead to fine-scale genetic differentiation in lesser kestrels. J Anim Ecol 78:468–475. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01493.x
Alexander DH, Novembre J, Lange K (2009) Fast model-based estimation of ancestry in unrelated individuals. Genome Res 19:1655–1664
Allendorf FW, Luikart G, Aitken SN (2012) Conservation and the genetics of populations, second. Wiley, New York
Anmarkrud JA, Kleven O, Bachmann L, Lifjeld JT (2008) Microsatellite evolution: mutations, sequence variation, and homoplasy in the hypervariable avian microsatellite locus HrU10. BMC Evol Biol 8:138. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-8-138
Arlettaz R, Schaub M, Fournier J et al (2010) From publications to public actions: when conservation biologists bridge the gap between research and implementation. Bioscience 60:835–842. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2010.60.10.10
Azpiroz AB, Isacch JP, Dias RA et al (2012) Ecology and conservation of grassland birds in southeastern South America: a review: Grassland Birds in South America. J Field Ornithol 83:217–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1557-9263.2012.00372.x
Balloux F (2010) The worm in the fruit of the mitochondrial DNA tree. Heredity 104:419–420. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2009.122
Balloux F, Lugon-Moulin N (2002) The estimation of population differentiation with microsatellite markers. Mol Ecol 11:155–165. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0962-1083.2001.01436.x
Balmford A, Bond W (2005) Trends in the state of nature and their implications for human well-being: trends in the state of nature. Ecol Lett 8:1218–1234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00814.x
Barrowclough GF, Groth JG, Mertz LA, Gutiérrez RJ (2005) Genetic structure, introgression, and a narrow hybrid zone between northern and California spotted owls (Strix occidentalis): Genetic structure of Spotted Owls. Mol Ecol 14:1109–1120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02465.x
Barrowclough GF, Groth JG, Mertz LA, Gutiérrez RJ (2006) Genetic structure of Mexican Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis lucida) populations in a fragmented landscape. Auk 123:1090–1102. https://doi.org/10.2307/25150222
Bazin E, Glémin S, Galtier N (2006) Population size does not influence mitochondrial genetic diversity in animals. Science 312:570–572. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1122033
Bensch S, Hasselquist D (1999) Phylogeographic population structure of great reed warblers: an analysis of mtDNA control region sequences. Biol J Linn Soc 66:171–185
Benson DA, Karsch-Mizrachi I, Lipman DJ et al (2007) GenBank. Nucleic Acids Res 35:21–25. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkl986
Bildstein KL (2006) Migrating raptors of the world: their ecology & conservation. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY
BirdLife International (2017) IUCN Red List for birds.
Bollmer JL, Whiteman NK, Cannon MD et al (2005) Population genetics of de Galapagos Hawk (Buteo galapagoensis): Genetic monomorphism within isolated populations. Auk 122:1210. https://doi.org/10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[1210:PGOTGH]2.0.CO;2
Bossart JL, Prowell DP (1998) Genetic estimates of population structure and gene flow: limitations, lessons and new directions. Trends Ecol Evol 13:202–206
Bounas A, Tsaparis D, Efrat R et al (2018) Genetic structure of a patchily distributed philopatric migrant: implications for management and conservation. Biol J Linn Soc 124:633–644. https://doi.org/10.1101/216069
Bourke BP, Frantz AC, Lavers CP et al (2010) Genetic signatures of population change in the British golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Conserv Genet 11:1837–1846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-010-0076-x
Brito PH (2007) Contrasting patterns of mitochondrial and microsatellite genetic structure among Western European populations of tawny owls (Strix aluco). Mol Ecol 16:3423–3437. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03401.x
Brown L, Amadon D (1968) Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill, New York
Bruford M, Ancrenaz M, Chikhi L et al (2010) Projecting genetic diversity and population viability for the fragmented orang-utan population in the Kinabatangan floodplain, Sabah, Malaysia. Endanger Species Res 12:249–261. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00295
Buechley ER, Santangeli A, Girardello M et al (2019) Global raptor research and conservation priorities: tropical raptors fall prey to knowledge gaps. Divers Distrib 25:856–869. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12901
Burnham KP (2002) Information and likelihood theory: a basis for model selection and inference, 2nd edn. Springer, New York
Çakmak E, Akin Pekşen Çİ, Kİrazli Cİ et al (2019) Genetic diversity is retained in a bottlenecked Cinereous Vulture population in Turkey. Ibis 161:793–805. https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12685
Canal D, Roques S, Negro JJ, Sarasola JH (2017) Population genetics of the endangered Crowned Solitary Eagle (Buteogallus coronatus) in South America. Conserv Genet 18:235–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-016-0878-6
Clegg SM, Kelly JF, Kimura M, Smith TB (2003) Combining genetic markers and stable isotopes to reveal population connectivity and migration patterns in a Neotropical migrant, Wilson’s Warbler (Wilsonia pusilla). Mol Ecol 12:819–830
Clobert J, Baguette M, Benton TG, Bullock JM (eds) (2012) Dispersal ecology and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Craig EH, Adams JR, Waits LP et al (2016) Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos canadensis) from three areas in Western North America; Initial results and conservation implications. PLoS ONE 11:e0164248. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164248
Crandall KA, Bininda-Emonds ORP, Mace GM, Wayne RK (2000) Considering evolutionary processes in conservation biology. Trends Ecol Evol 15:290–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01876-0
Cresswell W (2014) Migratory connectivity of Palaearctic-African migratory birds and their responses to environmental change: the serial residency hypothesis. Ibis 156:493–510
De Kort H, Prunier JG, Ducatez S et al (2021) Life history, climate and biogeography interactively affect worldwide genetic diversity of plant and animal populations. Nat Commun 12:1–11
De Volo SB (2005) Population genetics and genotyping for mark-recapture studies of Northern Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) on the Kaibab Plateau, Arizona. J Raptor Res 39:286–295
Del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J et al (eds) (2019) Handbook of the Birds of the word alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona
Delmore KE, Irwin DE (2014) Hybrid songbirds employ intermediate routes in a migratory divide. Ecol Lett 17:1211–1218. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12326
Delmore KE, Fox JW, Irwin DE (2012) Dramatic intraspecific differences in migratory routes, stopover sites and wintering areas, revealed using light-level geolocators. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 279:4582–4589. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.1229
Di Maggio R, Mengoni C, Mucci N et al (2015) Do not disturb the family: roles of colony size and human disturbance in the genetic structure of lesser kestrel: factors affecting genetic structure of lesser kestrels. J Zool 295:108–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12191
Dingle H, Drake VA (2007) What Is migration? Bioscience 57:113–121. https://doi.org/10.1641/B570206
Do C, Waples RS, Peel D et al (2014) NeEstimator v2: re-implementation of software for the estimation of contemporary effective population size from genetic data. Mol Ecol Resour 14:209–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-0998.12157
Domingues RR, Hilsdorf AWS, Gadig OBF (2018) The importance of considering genetic diversity in shark and ray conservation policies. Conserv Genet 19:501–525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-017-1038-3
Donázar JA, Cortés-Avizanda A, Fargallo JA et al (2016) Roles of raptors in a changing world: from flagships to providers of key ecosystem services. Ardeola 63:181–234. https://doi.org/10.13157/arla.63.1.2016.rp8
Doyle JM, Katzner TE, Roemer GW et al (2016) Genetic structure and viability selection in the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), a vagile raptor with a Holarctic distribution. Conserv Genet 17:1307–1322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-016-0863-0
Doyle JM, Bell DA, Bloom PH et al (2018) New insights into the phylogenetics and population structure of the prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus). BMC Genomics 19:233. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-018-4615-z
Drummond AJ, Rambaut A (2007) BEAST: Bayesian evolutionary analysis by sampling trees. BMC Evol Biol 7:214
Evans JA, Reimer J (2009) Open access and global participation in science. Science 323:1025–1025. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1154562
Excoffier L, Laval G, Schneider S (2005) Arlequin (version 3.0): an integrated software package for population genetics data analysis. Evol Bioinform 1:47–50
Ferchaud A-L, Perrier C, April J et al (2016) Making sense of the relationships between Ne, Nb and Nc towards defining conservation thresholds in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Heredity 117:268–278. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2016.62
Franchini P, Irisarri I, Fudickar A et al (2017) Animal tracking meets migration genomics: transcriptomic analysis of a partially migratory bird species. Mol Ecol 26:3204–3216. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.14108
Frankham R (1995) Effective population size/adult population size ratios in wildlife: a review. Genet Res 66:95–107. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016672300034455
Frankham R, Briscoe DA, Balloux F (2002) Introduction to conservation genetics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Frankham R, Bradshaw CJA, Brook BW (2014) Genetics in conservation management: revised recommendations for the 50/500 rules, Red List criteria and population viability analyses. Biol Conserv 170:56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2013.12.036
Fraser DJ, Bernatchez L (2001) Adaptive evolutionary conservation: towards a unified concept for defining conservation units. Mol Ecol 10:2741–2752
Friesen VL, Burg TM, McCoy KD (2007) Mechanisms of population differentiation in seabirds: population differentiation in Seabirds. Mol Ecol 16:1765–1785. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.03197.x
Funk WC, McKay JK, Hohenlohe PA, Allendorf FW (2012) Harnessing genomics for delineating conservation units. Trends Ecol Evol 27:489–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2012.05.012
Garcia JT, Alda F, Terraube J et al (2011) Demographic history, genetic structure and gene flow in a steppe-associated raptor species. BMC Evol Biol 11:333. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-11-333
García-Alfonso M, Morales-Reyes Z, Gangoso L et al (2019) Probing into farmers’ perceptions of a globally endangered ecosystem service provider. Ambio 48:900–912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-018-1102-3
Garner BA, Hoban SM, Luikart G (2020) IUCN Red List and the value of integrating genetics. Conserv Genet 21:795–801
Geraldes A, Askelson KK, Nikelski E et al (2019) Population genomic analyses reveal a highly differentiated and endangered genetic cluster of northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis laingi ) in Haida Gwaii. Evol Appl 12:757–772. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12754
Gilbert KJ, Whitlock MC (2015) Evaluating methods for estimating local effective population size with and without migration: estimating Ne in the presence of migration. Evolution 69:2154–2166. https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.12713
Gilbert KJ, Andrew RL, Bock DG et al (2012) Recommendations for utilizing and reporting population genetic analyses: the reproducibility of genetic clustering using the program structure. Mol Ecol 21:4925–4930. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2012.05754.x
Godoy JA, Negro JJ, Hiraldo F, Donázar JA (2004) Phylogeography, genetic structure and diversity in the endangered bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus, L.) as revealed by mitochondrial DNA: Phylogeography of Bearded Vultures. Mol Ecol 13:371–390. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.02075.x
Goudet J, Perrin N, Waser P (2002) Tests for sex-biased dispersal using bi-parentally inherited genetic markers. Mol Ecol 11:1103–1114. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01496.x
Gouy M, Guindon S, Gascuel O (2010) SeaView version 4: a multiplatform graphical user interface for sequence alignment and phylogenetic tree building. Mol Biol Evol 27:221–224
Greenbaum G, Renan S, Templeton AR et al (2018) Revealing life-history traits by contrasting genetic estimations with predictions of effective population size: effective size estimation and prediction. Conserv Biol 32:817–827. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13068
Guillot G, Mortier F, Estoup A (2005) Geneland: a computer package for landscape genetics. Mol Ecol Notes 5:712–715. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-8286.2005.01031.x
Guindon S, Dufayard J-F, Lefort V et al (2010) New algorithms and methods to estimate maximum-likelihood phylogenies: assessing the performance of PhyML 3.0. Syst Biol 59:307–321
Haig SM, MarkP M, Bellinger R et al (2016) The conservation genetics juggling act: integrating genetics and ecology, science and policy. Evol Appl 9:181–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12337
Haig SM, Wagner RS, Forsman ED, Mullins TD (2001) Geographic variation and genetic structure in Spotted Owls. Conserv Genet 2:24–40
Hailer F, Helander B, Folkestad AO et al (2006) Bottlenecked but long-lived: high genetic diversity retained in white-tailed eagles upon recovery from population decline. Biol Lett 2:316–319. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0453
Hailer F, Helander B, Folkestad AO et al (2007) Phylogeography of the white-tailed eagle, a generalist with large dispersal capacity. J Biogeogr 34:1193–1206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01697.x
Haines-Young R, Potschin M (2010) The links between biodiversity, ecosystem services and human well-being. In: Raffaelli DG, Frid CLJ (eds) Ecosystem ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 110–139
Handel CM, Pajot LM, Talbot SL, Sage GK (2006) Use of buccal swabs for sampling DNA from nestling and adult birds. Wildl Soc Bull 34:1094–1100. https://doi.org/10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[1094:UOBSFS]2.0.CO;2
Hare MP, Nunney L, Schwartz MK et al (2011) Understanding and estimating effective population size for practical application in marine species management. Conserv Biol 25:438–449. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01637.x
Hausknecht R, Jacobs S, Müller J et al (2014) Phylogeographic analysis and genetic cluster recognition for the conservation of Ural Owls (Strix uralensis) in Europe. J Ornithol 155:121–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-013-0994-8
Hendricks S, Anderson EC, Antao T et al (2018) Recent advances in conservation and population genomics data analysis. Evol Appl 11:1197–1211. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12659
Hille SM, Nesje M, Segelbacher G (2003) Genetic structure of kestrel populations and colonization of the Cape Verde archipelago. Mol Ecol 12:2145–2151. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01891.x
Hoban SM, Hauffe HC, Pérez-Espona S et al (2013) Bringing genetic diversity to the forefront of conservation policy and management. Conserv Genet Resour 5:593–598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12686-013-9859-y
Hoban S, Bruford M, D’Urban Jackson J et al (2020) Genetic diversity targets and indicators in the CBD post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework must be improved. Biol Cons 248:108654
Honnen A-C, Hailer F, Kenntner N et al (2010) Mitochondrial DNA and nuclear microsatellites reveal high diversity and genetic structure in an avian top predator, the white-tailed sea eagle, in central Europe. Biol J Linn Soc 99:727–737. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01373.x
Huang AC, Elliott JE, Cheng KM et al (2016) Barn owls (Tyto alba) in western North America: phylogeographic structure, connectivity, and genetic diversity. Conserv Genet 17:357–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-015-0787-0
Hull JM, Anderson R, Bradbury M et al (2008a) Population structure and genetic diversity in Swainson’s Hawks (Buteo swainsoni): implications for conservation. Conserv Genet 9:305–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-007-9342-y
Hull JM, Hull AC, Sacks BN et al (2008b) Landscape characteristics influence morphological and genetic differentiation in a widespread raptor (Buteo jamaicensis). Mol Ecol 17:810–824
Hurst GDD, Jiggins FM (2005) Problems with mitochondrial DNA as a marker in population, phylogeographic and phylogenetic studies: the effects of inherited symbionts. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 272:1525–1534. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3056
Husemann M, Zachos FE, Paxton RJ, Habel JC (2016) Effective population size in ecology and evolution. Heredity 117:191–192. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2016.75
IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee (2017) Guidelines for using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria. IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee, Gland
Jarvis ED, Mirarab S, Aberer AJ et al (2014) Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds. Science 346:1320–1331
Jenkins DG, Carey M, Czerniewska J et al (2010) A meta-analysis of isolation by distance: relic or reference standard for landscape genetics? Ecography. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06285.x
Johnson JA, Burnham KK, Burnham WA, Mindell DP (2007) Genetic structure among continental and island populations of gyrfalcons: gyrfalcon population structure. Mol Ecol 16:3145–3160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03373.x
Johnson JA, Tingay RE, Culver M et al (2008) Long-term survival despite low genetic diversity in the critically endangered Madagascar fish-eagle. Mol Ecol 18:54–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.04012.x
Johnson CN, Balmford A, Brook BW et al (2017) Biodiversity losses and conservation responses in the Anthropocene. Science 356:270–275. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam9317
Judkins ME, Couger BM, Warren WC, Van Den Bussche RA (2019) A 50K SNP array reveals genetic structure for bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Conserv Genet 21:65–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-019-01216-x
Kamath PL, Haroldson MA, Luikart G et al (2015) Multiple estimates of effective population size for monitoring a long-lived vertebrate: an application to Yellowstone grizzly bears. Mol Ecol 24:5507–5521. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13398
Kangas V-M, Carrillo J, Debray P, Kvist L (2018) Bottlenecks, remoteness and admixture shape genetic variation in island populations of Atlantic and Mediterranean common kestrels Falco tinnunculus. J Avian Biol 49:e01768. https://doi.org/10.1111/jav.01768
Katzner TE, Nelson DM, Braham MA et al (2017) Golden Eagle fatalities and the continental-scale consequences of local wind-energy generation: Continental Effects of Wind-Energy Production. Conserv Biol 31:406–415. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12836
Kimball RT, Oliveros CH, Wang N et al (2019) A phylogenomic supertree of birds. Diversity 11:109. https://doi.org/10.3390/d11070109
Kleinhans C, Willows-Munro S (2019) Low genetic diversity and shallow population structure in the endangered vulture, Gyps coprotheres. Sci Rep 9:5536. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41755-4
Koopman ME, Hayward GD, McDonald DB (2007) High connectivity and minimal genetic structue among North American Boreal owl (Aegolius funereus) populations, regardless of habitat matrix. Auk 124:690–704. https://doi.org/10.1642/0004-8038(2007)124[690:HCAMGS]2.0.CO;2
Korfanta N, McDonald D, Glenn TC (2005) Burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) population genetics: a comparison of North American forms and migratory habits. Auk 122:464–478
Kraus RHS, Wink M (2015) Avian genomics: fledging into the wild! J Ornithol 156:851–865. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-015-1253-y
Kremen C (2018) The value of pollinator species diversity. Science 359:741–742. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar7614
Laikre L, Hoban S, Bruford MW et al (2020) Post-2020 goals overlook genetic diversity. Science 367:1083. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb2046
Langguth T, Honnen A-C, Hailer F et al (2013) Genetic structure and phylogeography of a European flagship species, the white-tailed sea eagle Haliaeetus albicilla. J Avian Biol 44:263–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-048X.2012.00075.x
Lassmann T, Sonnhammer E (2005) Kalign—an accurate and fast multiple sequence alignment algorithm. BMC Bioinform 6:298. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-6-298
Latch EK, Dharmarajan G, Glaubitz JC, Rhodes OE (2006) Relative performance of Bayesian clustering software for inferring population substructure and individual assignment at low levels of population differentiation. Conserv Genet 7:295–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-005-9098-1
Lawson-Handley LJ, Manica A, Goudet J, Balloux F (2007) Going the distance: human population genetics in a clinal world. Trends Genet 23:432–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tig.2007.07.002
Le Gouar P, Rigal F, Boisselier-Dubayle MC et al (2008) Genetic variation in a network of natural and reintroduced populations of Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus) in Europe. Conserv Genet 9:349–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-007-9347-6
Lefort V, Longueville J-E, Gascuel O (2017) SMS: smart model selection in PhyML. Mol Biol Evol 34:2422–2424
León-Ortega M, González-Wangüemert M, Martínez JE, Calvo JF (2014) Spatial patterns of genetic diversity in mediterranean eagle owl Bubo bubo populations. Ardeola 61:45–62. https://doi.org/10.13157/arla.61.1.2014.45
Lerner HRL, Johnson JA, Lindsay AR et al (2009) It’s not too late for the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja): high levels of genetic diversity and differentiation can fuel conservation programs. PLoS ONE 4:e7336. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007336
Lin W-L, Severinghaus LL, Tseng H-Y, Lin S-M (2013) Genetic differentiation between migratory and sedentary populations of the Northern Boobook (Ninox japonica), with the discovery of a novel cryptic sedentary lineage. J Ornithol 154:987–994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-013-0966-z
Literák I, Mrlík V, Hovorková A et al (2007) Origin and genetic structure of white-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in the Czech Republic: an analysis of breeding distribution, ringing data and DNA microsatellites. Eur J Wildl Res 53:195–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-006-0081-z
Lombal AJ, O’dwyer JE, Friesen V et al (2020) Identifying mechanisms of genetic differentiation among populations in vagile species: historical factors dominate genetic differentiation in seabirds. Biol Rev. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12580
Lovette IJ, Clegg SM, Smith TB (2004) Limited utility of mtDNA markers for determining connectivity among breeding and overwintering locations in three Neotropical migrant birds. Conserv Biol 18:156–166
Machado AP, Clément L, Uva V et al (2018) The Rocky Mountains as a dispersal barrier between barn owl (Tyto alba) populations in North America. J Biogeogr 45:1288–1300. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.13219
Macías-Duarte A, Conway CJ, Holroyd GL et al (2019) Genetic variation among island and continental populations of Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia) subspecies in North America. J Raptor Res 53:127–133. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-18-00002
Mahmood MT, McLenachan PA, Gibb GC, Penny D (2014) Phylogenetic position of avian nocturnal and diurnal raptors. Genome Biol Evol 6:326–332
Manel S, Joost S, Epperson BK et al (2010) Perspectives on the use of landscape genetics to detect genetic adaptive variation in the field: Adaptive genetic variation and landscape genetics. Mol Ecol 19:3760–3772. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04717.x
Markandya A, Taylor T, Longo A et al (2008) Counting the cost of vulture decline—An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India. Ecol Econ 67:194–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.04.020
Markov G, Zhelev P, Ben Slimen H, Suchentrunk F (2016) Population genetic data pertinent to the conservation of Bulgarian chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica). Conserv Genet 17:155–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-015-0768-3
Marthinsen G, Wennerberg L, Solheim R, Lifjeld JT (2009) No phylogeographic structure in the circumpolar snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus). Conserv Genet 10:923–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-008-9581-6
Martinez-Bakker ME, Sell SK, Swanson BJ et al (2013) Combined genetic and telemetry data reveal high rates of gene flow, migration, and long-distance dispersal potential in arctic ringed seals (Pusa hispida). PLoS ONE 8:e77125. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077125
Martinez-Cruz B (2011) Conservation genetics of Iberian raptors. Anim Biodivers Conserv 34:341–353
Martínez-Cruz B, Godoy JA, Negro JJ (2004) Population genetics after fragmentation: the case of the endangered Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti): conservation in genetics in Aquila adalberti. Mol Ecol 13:2243–2255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02220.x
Martínez-Cruz B, Méndez Camarena M (2019) Conservation genetics in raptors. In: Sarasola JH, Grande JM, Negro JJ (eds) Birds of prey: biology and conservation in the XXI century. Springer, Cham, pp 339–371
McClure CJW, Westrip JRS, Johnson JA et al (2018) State of the world’s raptors: distributions, threats, and conservation recommendations. Biol Conserv 227:390–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.08.012
McClure CJW, Schulwitz SE, Anderson DL et al (2019) Commentary: defining raptors and birds of prey. J Raptor Res 53:419. https://doi.org/10.3356/0892-1016-53.4.419
McRae BH, Beier P (2007) Circuit theory predicts gene flow in plant and animal populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:19885–19890. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0706568104
Meirmans PG, Hedrick PW (2011) Assessing population structure: FST and related measures: invited technical review. Mol Ecol Resour 11:5–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0998.2010.02927.x
Mendelsohn B, Bedrosian B, Love Stowell SM et al (2020) Population genomic diversity and structure at the discontinuous southern range of the Great Gray Owl in North America. Conserv Genet. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-020-01280-8
Miller MP, Mullins TD, Parrish JW et al (2012) Variation in migratory behavior influences regional genetic diversity and structure among American Kestrel populations (Falco sparverius) in North America. J Hered 103:503–514. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/ess024
Miller MP, Davis RJ, Forsman ED et al (2018) Isolation by distance versus landscape resistance: understanding dominant patterns of genetic structure in Northern Spotted Owls (Strix occidentalis caurina). PLoS ONE 13:e0201720. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201720
Miller JM, Cullingham CI, Peery RM (2020) The influence of a priori grouping on inference of genetic clusters: simulation study and literature review of the DAPC method. Heredity. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41437-020-0348-2
Minias P, Pikus E, Anderwald D (2019) Allelic diversity and selection at the MHC class I and class II in a bottlenecked bird of prey, the White-tailed Eagle. BMC Evol Biol 19:1–13
Mira S, Arnaud-Haond S, Palma L et al (2013) Large-scale population genetic structure in Bonelli’s Eagle Aquila fasciata. Ibis 155:485–498. https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12065
Monteiro WP, Veiga JC, Silva AR et al (2019) Everything you always wanted to know about gene flow in tropical landscapes (but were afraid to ask). PeerJ 7:e6446. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6446
Monti F, Delfour F, Arnal V et al (2018) Genetic connectivity among osprey populations and consequences for conservation: philopatry versus dispersal as key factors. Conserv Genet 19:839–851. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-018-1058-7
Morin PA, Luikart G, Wayne RK, the SNP workshop group (2004) SNPs in ecology, evolution and conservation. Trends Ecol Evol 19:208–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2004.01.009
Morin PA, Martien KK, Taylor BL (2009) Assessing statistical power of SNPs for population structure and conservation studies. Mol Ecol Resour 9:66–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0998.2008.02392.x
Morinha F, Ramos PS, Gomes S et al (2016) Microsatellite markers suggest high genetic diversity in an urban population of Cooper’s hawks (Accipiter cooperii). J Genet 95:19–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12041-016-0695-1
Mueller JC, Kuhl H, Boerno S et al (2018) Evolution of genomic variation in the burrowing owl in response to recent colonization of urban areas. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 285:20180206. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0206
Nagai K, Takahashi Y, Yamazaki S, Azuma A (2018) Analysis of the genetic diversity and structure of the Eastern Marsh Harrier in Japan using mitochondrial DNA. J Ornithol 159:73–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-017-1480-5
Nebel C, Gamauf A, Haring E et al (2015) Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals Holarctic homogeneity and a distinct Mediterranean lineage in the Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos ). Biol J Linn Soc 116:328–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/bij.12583
Nebel C, Gamauf A, Haring E et al (2019) New insights into population structure of the European golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) revealed by microsatellite analysis. Biol J Linn Soc 128:611–631. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blz130
Nemesházi E, Kövér S, Zachos FE et al (2016) Natural and anthropogenic influences on the population structure of white-tailed eagles in the Carpathian Basin and central Europe. J Avian Biol 47:795–805. https://doi.org/10.1111/jav.00938
Nesje M, Røed KH, Bell DA et al (2000) Microsatellite analysis of population structure and genetic variability in peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus). Anim Conserv 3:267–275
Newton I (2008) The migration ecology of birds, 1st edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Nielsen R, Korneliussen T, Albrechtsen A et al (2012) SNP calling, genotype calling, and sample allele frequency estimation from new-generation sequencing data. PLoS ONE 7:e37558. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037558
O’Bryan CJ, Braczkowski AR, Beyer HL et al (2018) The contribution of predators and scavengers to human well-being. Nat Ecol Evol 2:229–236. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0421-2
Ogden R, Heap E, McEwing R et al (2015) Population structure and dispersal patterns in Scottish Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos revealed by molecular genetic analysis of territorial birds. Ibis 157:837–848. https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12282
Omote K, Nishida C, Takenaka T, Masuda R (2012) Temporal changes of genetic population structure and diversity in the endangered Blakiston’s Fish Owl (Bubo blakiston) on Hokkaido Island, Japan, revealed by microsatellite analysis. Zool Sci 29:299–304. https://doi.org/10.2108/zsj.29.299
Padró J, Lambertucci SA, Perrig PL, Pauli JN (2018) Evidence of genetic structure in a wide-ranging and highly mobile soaring scavenger, the Andean condor. Divers Distrib 24:1534–1544. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12786
Palsboll P, Berube M, Allendorf FW (2007) Identification of management units using population genetic data. Trends Ecol Evol 22:11–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2006.09.003
Palstra FP, Ruzzante DE (2008) Genetic estimates of contemporary effective population size: what can they tell us about the importance of genetic stochasticity for wild population persistence? Mol Ecol 17:3428–3447
Pasquetto IV, Borgman CL, Wofford MF (2019) Uses and reuses of scientific data: the data creators’ advantage. Harv Data Sci Rev. https://doi.org/10.1162/99608f92.fc14bf2d
Peakall R, Smouse PE (2012) GenAlEx 6.5: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research–an update. Bioinformatics 28:2537–2539. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/bts460
Pellegrino I, Negri A, Boano G et al (2015) Evidence for strong genetic structure in European populations of the little owl Athene noctua. J Avian Biol 46:462–475
Pokrovsky I (2018) Stable isotope analysis in raptor and falconry studies. In: Gersmann K-H (ed) Raptor and human: falconry and bird symbolism throughout the millennia on a global scale. Wachholtz, Neumünster
Ponnikas S, Kvist L, Ollila T et al (2013) Genetic structure of an endangered raptor at individual and population levels. Conserv Genet 14:1135–1147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-013-0501-z
Ponnikas S, Ollila T, Kvist L (2017) Turnover and post-bottleneck genetic structure in a recovering population of Peregrine Falcons Falco peregrinus. Ibis 159:311–323. https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12460
Poulakakis N, Antoniou A, Mantziou G et al (2008) Population structure, diversity, and phylogeography in the near-threatened Eurasian black vultures Aegypius monachus (Falconiformes; Accipitridae) in Europe: insights from microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variation. Biol J Linn Soc 95:859–872. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01099.x
Pritchard JK, Stephens M, Donnelly P (2000) Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics 155:945–959
Prugnolle F, de Meeus T (2002) Inferring sex-biased dispersal from population genetic tools: a review. Heredity 88:161–165. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.hdy.6800060
Puechmaille SJ (2016) The program structure does not reliably recover the correct population structure when sampling is uneven: subsampling and new estimators alleviate the problem. Mol Ecol Resour 16:608–627. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-0998.12512
Rambaut A (2018) FigTree, version 1.4.4
Ribout C, Villers A, Ruault S et al (2019) Fine-scale genetic structure in a high dispersal capacity raptor, the Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus), revealed by a set of novel microsatellite loci. Genetica 147:69–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10709-019-00053-7
Rieman BE, Allendorf FW (2001) Effective population size and genetic conservation criteria for Bull Trout. North Am J Fish Manag 21:756–764. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8675(2001)021%3c0756:EPSAGC%3e2.0.CO;2
Rodewald P (ed) (2015) The birds of North America. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. https://birdsna.org. Accessed 30 May 2020
Roques S, Negro JJ (2005) MtDNA genetic diversity and population history of a dwindling raptorial bird, the red kite (Milvus milvus). Biol Conserv 126:41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.04.020
Rosenberg KV, Dokter AM, Blancher PJ et al (2019) Decline of the North American avifauna. Science 366:120–124. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw1313
Rousset F (1997) Genetic differentiation and estimation of gene flow from F-statistics under isolation by distance. Genetics 145:1219–1228
Rousset F (2008) genepop’007: a complete re-implementation of the genepop software for Windows and Linux. Mol Ecol Resour 8:103–106
Rubinoff D, Holland BS (2005) Between two extremes: mitochondrial DNA is neither the panacea nor the nemesis of phylogenetic and taxonomic inference. Syst Biol 54:952–961. https://doi.org/10.1080/10635150500234674
Ruegg KC, Anderson EC, Paxton KL et al (2014) Mapping migration in a songbird using high-resolution genetic markers. Mol Ecol 23:5726–5739
Rutkowski R, Rejt Ł, Tereba A et al (2010) Population genetic structure of the European kestrel Falco tinnunculus in Central Poland. Eur J Wildl Res 56:297–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-009-0320-1
Rutkowski R, Krupiński D, Kitowski I et al (2015) Genetic structure and diversity of breeding Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus) in Europe. Eur J Wildl Res 61:691–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-015-0943-3
Sarasola JH, Gande JM, Negro JJ (eds) (2019) Birds of prey: biology and conservation in the XXI century. Springer, Cham
Sawada A, Iwasaki T, Takagi M (2019) Fine-scale spatial genetic structure in the Minami-daito Island population of the Ryukyu scops owl Otus elegans. J Zool 307:159–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12634
Sekercioglu CH, Daily GC, Ehrlich PR (2004) Ecosystem consequences of bird declines. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:18042–18047. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0408049101
Selkoe KA, Toonen RJ (2006) Microsatellites for ecologists: a practical guide to using and evaluating microsatellite markers. Ecol Lett 9:615–629
Sergio F, Newton I, Marchesi L, Pedrini P (2006) Ecologically justified charisma: preservation of top predators delivers biodiversity conservation: top predators and biodiversity. J Appl Ecol 43:1049–1055. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01218.x
Sergio F, Marchesi L, Pedrini P, Penteriani V (2007) Coexistence of a generalist owl with its intraguild predator: distance-sensitive or habitat-mediated avoidance? Anim Behav 74:1607–1616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.10.022
Serre D, Pääbo SP (2004) Evidence for gradients of human genetic diversity within and among continents. Genome Res 14:1679–1685. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.2529604
Shafer ABA, Wolf JBW, Alves PC et al (2015) Genomics and the challenging translation into conservation practice. Trends Ecol Evol 30:78–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2014.11.009
Shafer ABA, Northrup JM, Wikelski M et al (2016) Forecasting ecological genomics: high-Tech animal instrumentation meets high-throughput sequencing. PLoS Biol. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002350
Shephard JM, Hughes JM, Catterall CP, Olsen PD (2005) Conservation status of the White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in Australia determined using mtDNA control region sequence data. Conserv Genet 6:413–429
Sherry TW (2018) Identifying migratory birds’ population bottlenecks in time and space. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 115:3515–3517. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1802174115
Sonsthagen SA, Talbot SL, White CM (2004) Gene flow and genetic characterization of Northern Goshawks breeding in Utah. Condor 106:826–836. https://doi.org/10.1650/7448
Sonsthagen SA, Rosenfield R, Bielefeldt J et al (2012) Genetic and morphological divergence among Cooper’s Hawk (Accipiter cooperii) populations breeding in north-central and western North America. Auk 129:427–437. https://doi.org/10.1525/auk.2012.11166
Takaki Y, Kawahara T, Kitamura H et al (2009) Genetic diversity and genetic structure of Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) populations in eastern Japan and Central Asia. Conserv Genet 10:269–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-008-9567-4
Talbot SL, Sage GK, Sonsthagen SA et al (2017) Intraspecific evolutionary relationships among peregrine falcons in western North American high latitudes. PLoS ONE 12:e0188185. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188185
Terraube J, Bretagnolle V (2018) Top-down limitation of mesopredators by avian top predators: a call for research on cascading effects at the community and ecosystem scale. Ibis 160:693–702. https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12581
Therrien J-F, Gauthier G, Korpimäki E, Bêty J (2014) Predation pressure by avian predators suggests summer limitation of small-mammal populations in the Canadian Arctic. Ecology 95:56–67
Tinajero R, Barragán F, Chapa-Vargas L (2017) Raptor Functional Diversity In Scrubland-Agricultural Landscapes of Northern-Central-Mexican Dryland environments. Trop Conserv Sci 10:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940082917712426
Väli Ü, Dombrovski V, Dzmitranok M et al (2019) High genetic diversity and low differentiation retained in the European fragmented and declining Greater Spotted Eagle (Clanga clanga) population. Sci Rep 9:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-39187-1
Vili N, Chavko J, Szabó K et al (2009) Genetic structure of the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) population in Slovakia. Slovak Raptor J 3:21–28. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10262-012-0029-z
Vilstrup JT, Mullins TD, Miller MP et al (2018) A simplified field protocol for genetic sampling of birds using buccal swabs. Wilson J Ornithol 130:326–334. https://doi.org/10.1676/16-105.1
Vision T (2010) The Dryad digital repository: published evolutionary data as part of the greater data ecosystem. Nat Preced. https://doi.org/10.1038/npre.2010.4595.1
Wang J (2017) The computer program structure for assigning individuals to populations: easy to use but easier to misuse. Mol Ecol Resour 17:981–990. https://doi.org/10.1111/1755-0998.12650
Wang IJ, Bradburd GS (2014) Isolation by environment. Mol Ecol 23:5649–5662
Wang IJ, Glor RE, Losos JB (2013) Quantifying the roles of ecology and geography in spatial genetic divergence. Ecol Lett 16:175–182
Wang IJ, Santiago E, Caballero A (2016) Prediction and estimation of effective population size. Heredity 117:193–206. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2016.43
Waples RS (2005) Genetic estimates of contemporary effective population size: to what time periods do the estimates apply? Mol Ecol 14:3335–3352. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02673.x
Waples RS (2016) Making sense of genetic estimates of effective population size. Mol Ecol 25:4689–4691. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13814
Waples RS, Antao T, Luikart G (2014) Effects of overlapping generations on linkage disequilibrium estimates of effective population size. Genetics 197:769–780. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.114.164822
Waples RS, Naish KA, Primmer CR (2020) Conservation and management of salmon in the age of genomics. Annu Rev Anim Biosci 8:117–143. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-animal-021419-083617
Withrow JJ, Sealy SG, Winker K (2014) Genetics of divergence in the Northern Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus). Auk 131:73–85. https://doi.org/10.1642/AUK-13-187.1
Wommack EA, Dawson RD, Shrimpton JM, Bowie RCK (2015) Changes in population size and genetic diversity of a raptor species occurring in the boreal forest of Saskatchewan. Conserv Genet 16:535–547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-014-0677-x
Woolaver LG, Nichols RK, Morton ES, Stutchbury BJM (2013) Population genetics and relatedness in a critically endangered island raptor, Ridgway’s Hawk Buteo ridgwayi. Conserv Genet 14:559–571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-013-0444-4
Wright S (1943) Isolation by distance. Genetics 28:114–138
Wright TF, Rodriguez AM, Fleischer RC (2005) Vocal dialects, sex-biased dispersal, and microsatellite population structure in the parrot Amazona auropalliata: Parot dialects and microsatellite variation. Mol Ecol 14:1197–1205. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02466.x
Yue G-H, Balazs K, Laszlo O (2010) A new problem with cross-species amplification of microsatellites: generation of non-homologous products. Zool Res 31:131–140. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1141.2010.02131
Zane L, Bargelloni L, Patarnello T (2002) Strategies for microsatellite isolation: a review. Mol Ecol 11:1–16
Zhang D-X, Hewitt GM (2003) Nuclear DNA analyses in genetic studies of populations: practice, problems and prospects. Mol Ecol 12:563–584
Zhang L, Liu Y, Song J (2008) Genetic variation between subspecies of Common Kestrels (Falco Tinnunculus) in Beijing, China. J Raptor Res 42:214–219. https://doi.org/10.3356/JRR-07-18.1
Zimmo S, Blanco J, Nebel S (2012) The use of stable isotopes in the study of animal migration. Nat Educ Knowl 3:3
Acknowledgements
The Canada Research Program, Polar Knowledge Canada, The National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation supported N.L. M.G.-L. received NSERC and The Fonds de recherche du Québec—Nature et technologies (FRQNT) grants for her MS. We also thank C.J.W. McClure for sharing data linked to Figure 4. We also thank S. Hoban (Associate editor) and two anonymous reviewers whose comments help to improve and clarify this study, and B.S. Holland for reviewing the final version of this manuscript. Database is available on Figshare; https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12455732.
Funding
The Canada Research Program, Polar Knowledge Canada, NSERC and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation supported N.L. M.G.-L. received NSERC and FRQNT grants for her MS.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Data collection and analysis were performed by M.G.-L. with inputs from all co-authors. M.G.-L. wrote the first draft of the manuscript and all co-authors commented on all versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gousy-Leblanc, M., Yannic, G., Therrien, JF. et al. Mapping our knowledge on birds of prey population genetics. Conserv Genet 22, 685–702 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-021-01368-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-021-01368-9