Introduction

Learning opportunities that enable learners to enact in teaching practices concerning real-life professional tasks play an increasing role in university-based teacher education (Grossman et al., 2009; Seidel et al., 2015). These can include, for example, diagnosing a student’s understanding of a learning content through collecting diagnostic information (Behrmann & Souvignier, 2013; Heitzmann et al., 2019; Kron et al., 2021). Providing opportunities for engaging with such professional tasks intends to initiate authentic learning experiences, as it is assumed that the more successfully a real-life context is staged in a learning environment the higher the level of authenticity (Betz et al., 2016). In this understanding, authenticity is therefore understood as the degree of similarity between features of a learning environment and the actual context in professional real life (Chernikova et al., 2023; Gulikers, et al., 2004; Hamstra et al., 2014). Authentic learning experiences are seen as crucial for fostering complex skill acquisition even at an early stage of professional competence development (Grossman, et al., 2009; Shavelson, 2012). In this vein, it is argued that abstract, theoretical concepts taught at universities (Stürmer et al., 2013) need to be connected to professional practice to avoid inert knowledge and to enable knowledge application to real-life contexts (Betz et al., 2016; Nachtigall & Rummel, 2021; Renkl, 2014).

Engaging in teaching practices in real classrooms represents the highest authenticity regarding professional tasks (Grossman, et al., 2009; Seidel et al., 2015). However, complexity-reduced practices, as they have to be executed in simulations, and which are easier to integrate into teacher education trainings, are still regarded as authentic (Codreanu et al., 2020; Seidel et al., 2015). For example, when gathering diagnostic information from student answers presented in a computer simulation or by a trained actor, this represents an approximation of the professional task of gathering information through posing questions to students in the complexity of classroom interaction. Thus, such practices might also constitute a valuable learning experience. This argument is supported by current findings from meta-analyses, which consistently show a positive effect of mastering professional tasks in simulations on learning in various domains of higher education (see Chernikova, et al., 2020; Chernikova et al., 2023). Although the use of simulation as a learning tool in teacher education is not yet widespread (Kaufman & Irland, 2016), different promising implementation types of simulations can be detected, representing varying degrees of approximations of professional tasks. These forms range from video simulations, which are typically computer-based in nature and where the scope of action and interaction is strongly predefined (i.e., Bradley & Kendall, 2014; Codreanu et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2022; Nickl et al., 2022; Richter et al., 2022; Theelen et al., 2019), to more interactive settings with a stronger scope to shape the situation through own action, such as live role-plays that can be presented computer-based or on-site (i.e., Gartmeier et al., 2015; He & Yan, 2011; Kron et al., 2022b; Seidel et al., 2015).

However, it is essential for successful learning in simulations that preservice teachers can easily transfer the enacted practices concerning a professional task to a real-life context (Codreanu et al., 2020). To achieve this, they should also perceive the simulation as an authentic representation of the professional task. The individual perception of task authenticity can be seen as a link between the authenticity of the design of the learning environment and learning success, as individual perceptions may affect whether the contextualization effects motivational and cognitive aspects of learning (Betz et al., 2016; Brophy, 2004; Nachtigall & Rummel, 2021). However, the perception of task authenticity can be influenced by different factors independent of the provided task itself. For example, individual learning prerequisites are assumed to influence how authentic learners perceive a task in relation to its relevance to a real-life context (Betz et al., 2016; Nickl et al., 2022). In addition, particularly when it comes to novice teachers, previous research shows that they have difficulties identifying relevant elements of practice in professional contexts, especially when they lack professional knowledge, or when the tasks are unfamiliar and new to them (Grossman et al., 2009; Hammerness et al., 2002; Star & Strickland, 2008). In this vein, familiarity with the learning context might influence preservice teachers’ individual perception (Chernikova et al., 2023; Korthagen et al., 2008). Further, it could be assumed that, due to a lack of professional knowledge, the perception of task authenticity in simulation is rather guided by factors such as authentic physical design features like the presentation of a real student (Nachtigall et al., 2022), as they are more overt to novices than the possibilities to act authentically in the represented professional task (especially if it is only an approximation to the real life). So far, there are hardly any empirical findings on how personal factors and factors related to task presentation influence preservice teachers’ perception of authenticity concerning professional tasks. However, these findings would help to better understand what to pay attention to when using simulations to foster skill acquisition in the early stages of professional competence development.

In this study, we explore how (i) different implementation types of a simulation, (ii) the familiarity with the simulated task, and (iii) individual learning prerequisites play in preservice teachers’ perception of task authenticity. Therefore, we contrast two implementation types of the same computer-based simulation, in which mathematic preservice teachers diagnose a student’s understanding of decimal fractions (DiMaL-Simulation, Kron et al., 2024; Marczynski et al., 2022): as video simulation type and as live role-play simulation type. Both implementations of the DiMaL-Simulation were parallel in terms of content and were in this study processed online (due to the COVID-19 pandemic) repeatedly by the same preservice teachers. However, the two types of the simulation differ in the degree of approximating real-life practice concerning the professional task (regarding reduction in complexity as well as aspects of authenticity in the design). This allows us to identify factors that are associated with preservice teachers’ perception of task authenticity in simulation-based learning environments.

Perceived task authenticity as prerequisites for successful learning in simulations

Authentic learning experiences concerning professional tasks are seen as crucial for successful learning regarding complex skill acquisition underlying professional competencies (Grossman et al., 2009; Shavelson, 2012). Emphasizing the role of authentic learning for professional competence development goes back to theories of situated learning, which build on the argument that learning is situated in nature and that the context, therefore, affects the construction of applicable knowledge (i.e., Brown et al., 1989). Thus, learning in authentic environments is assumed to increase applicable knowledge structures and by this also competence development as well as motivational prerequisites for successful learning processes (Betz et al. 2016; Korthagen, 2008). According to current frameworks on complex skill acquisition, the linking of conceptual knowledge with practice representations is already required at the early stages of competence development processes (Boshuizen et al., 2020; Heitzmann et al., 2019). It is assumed that during initial skill acquisition, professional knowledge must continuously be expanded by applying conceptual knowledge to real-life problems. With increasing knowledge application to relevant elements of practice and by integrating knowledge with practice, action routines can be built up that enable a flexible retrieval in various real-life situations by integrating knowledge with practice (e.g., Boshuizen et al., 1995; Schmidt & Rikers, 2007). Furthermore, when it comes to mastering authentic professional tasks, it is assumed that learners not only use acquired action routines when coping with the task but also specific conceptual knowledge (Chi et al., 1989). Thus, such authentic learning experiences might support the elaboration of conceptual knowledge by encouraging learners to reflect and restructure acquired knowledge against the background of central aspects of practice (Lane et al., 2008; Lane & Rollnick, 2007; St-Onge et al., 2013; Stegmann et al., 2012).

However, previous research shows that authentically designed learning environments do not guarantee authentic learning experiences per se (Nachtigall et al., 2022). The learner’s perception of authenticity is an important factor in how authentically designed learning environments affect learning success. It is assumed that the individual perception of authenticity influences whether the contextualization in a learning setting affects motivational and cognitive aspects of learning (Betz et al., 2016; Brophy, 2004; Nachtigall & Rummel, 2021). This assumption is plausible since, in psychological-educational research, learning is seen as an interaction between an offer made in a learning setting, and processes of situation-specific information processing by the learner. Therefore, the learner actively uses the learning environment and, thus, individually processes the information provided. Although studies on this complex interaction are still very rare (Nachtigall et al., 2022), initial studies with simulations support the assumptions about the importance of perceived authenticity for learning processes. Fink et al. (2023), for example, show that in a virtual reality environment, university students’ interest in the presented topic after learning in the setting was influenced by individual perceived authenticity-related variables such as the feeling of presence. Against this background, it can be argued that preservice teachers’ perception of task authenticity is also a central factor for successful authentic learning experiences in simulations and thus, might influence their learning processes. This argument seems to be supported by a first glance at a subsample from this study, which suggests a positive impact of perceived task authenticity on motivational learning outcomes for preservice teachers (Kron et al., 2022a).

Simulations as authentic learning environments

Simulations can be promising learning environments in teacher education to initiate authentic learning experiences with respect to mastering a professional task (Heitzmann et al., 2019; Kaufmann & Ireland, 2016). Simulations are defined as a simplified model of a natural or artificial system that can be manipulated (Heitzmann et al., 2009; Kaufman & Ireland, 2016; Sauvé et al., 2007). They offer the unique possibility for learners to repeatedly enact in practice concerning a professional task (Gartmeier et al., 2015; Heitzmann, et al., 2019; Lane & Rollnick, 2007). For the learning processes, this means that learners could try decisions and actions, experience the results of those, and modify their practices without risking harm (Kaufman & Irland, 2016). Correction and feedback allowing learning without real consequence (Ferry et al., 2006). A key characteristic of learning in simulations is that, despite a high degree of standardization, learners can actively intervene in the situations, and further events depend, among other things, on this intervention (Gartmeier et al., 2015; Heitzmann et al., 2019). Furthermore, by enacting authentic professional tasks, the learners are confronted with associated job demands for successfully handling the situation, like identifying crucial events (i.e., Prediger & Buró, 2021). This, in turn, requires the application and thus enables testing of situation-specific abilities such as the perception and interpretation of relevant events occurring in a situation (Blömeke et al., 2015; Seidel & Stürmer, 2014).

Because in simulations real-life contexts are readjusted, they can only represent an approximation of real action in the professional task (Grossman et al., 2009). Even though it is undisputed that enacting teaching practices in real classrooms represents the highest authenticity (Grossman, et al., 2009; Seidel et al., 2015), the associated complexity, for example, regarding the scope of one’s own action and interaction, is considered overwhelming for preservice teachers (Seidel & Stürmer, 2014). In this vein, approximations of professional tasks as learning environments that reduce the complexity of practice provide a way to balance authenticity with cognitive demand (Codreanu et al., 2020; Seidel et al., 2015). Approximations of practice allow one to concentrate on relevant practice elements, control disruptive factors, and allow for their own professional action to some extent (see Approximation of Practice Framework: Grossman et al., 2009). Furthermore, they offer the advantage that their complexity concerning professional tasks can be continuously adapted to the level of professional competence development. In this sense, it is argued that with increasing complexity in representing real-life practice, the authenticity of enacted practices concerning professional tasks also increases (Grossman, et al., 2009; Seidel et al., 2015). This is because the authenticity of a learning environment is defined as the degree of similarity between features of the environment and the actual context in professional real life (Chernikova et al., 2023; Gulikers et al., 2004; Hamstra et al., 2014). The stronger the staging of real-life context, the higher the level of authenticity (Betz et al., 2016). However, it is important to note that in the literature, often different aspects of the design of the learning environment are subsumed under authenticity, from which it can be assumed that different effects on learning emanate (Nachtigall et al., 2023). In this vein, Chernikova et al. (2023), make the important distinction between the physical resemblance and the functional correspondence in designing authentic learning environments. By physical resemblance, the authenticity of overt design features on a physical, easily observable level is meant (i.e., displaying a real student in a picture or video). The functional correspondence concerns the task level, meaning how a learning environment approximates the actions to be taken and demands to be mastered in the corresponding professional task (i.e., to diagnose a student’s understanding by selecting tasks and interacting with a person in real-time). In fact, initial studies suggest that functional correspondence seems more critical for promoting complex skill acquisition (Chernikova et al., 2023; Hamstra et al., 2014).

It is assumed that different implementation types of simulations provide different opportunities to introduce complexity-reduced practices concerning professional tasks and, thus, vary in their functional correspondence with the real-life context (Grossman et al., 2019). However, increasing functional correspondence might make it more difficult to sustain physical correspondence. Role-plays, for example, are a widespread type of simulation, in medical programs at universities (Lane et al., 2008; Lane & Rollnick, 2007; Stegmann et al., 2012) or, via microteaching approaches with a long tradition in teacher education programs (Brown, 1975; He & Yan, 2011), but also in initial approaches as highly standardized simulated learning environments (Gartmeier et al., 2015; Marczynski, 2022; Seidel et al., 2015). In role-plays, learners typically take over a role (e.g., that of a teacher) and act with others when enacting a professional task. Thus, role-play can be characterized by the fact that it opens learners’ scope for self-regulated action and interaction when mastering a professional task (Gartmeier et al., 2015; Grossman et al., 2009). In this vein, the enacted teaching practices are less strongly reduced in their complexity than, for example, in computer-based video simulations, where the scope of action is often strongly predefined by the choices afforded by the system (Bradley & Kendall, 2014). Regarding the functional correspondence, learners’ role-taking in role-plays is assumed to support the formation of action routines for the target competence based on previously acquired conceptual knowledge (Lane et al., 2008; Lane & Rollnick, 2007). However, despite this substantial potential for supporting competence development, role-plays might also be highly challenging for preservice teachers. Especially for learners with little prior knowledge, such complex environments concerning an open scope of action and interaction have the risk of being perceived as overwhelming and associated with high cognitive load (Hammerness et al., 2002; Sweller, 2010). This has even recently been demonstrated for the learning of preservice teachers in virtual reality simulations, in which they interact typically with programmed characters rather than real people, and in which the scope for action is still limited compared to the real classroom (Huang et al., 2022).

Computer-based video simulations may offer a stronger reduction of complexity in the enacted practices, as the scope of action and interaction is strongly predefined (Codreanu et al., 2020; Theelen et al., 2019). They are seen as a promising tool to support the initial phase of competence development as they provide specific skill-building lessons (Bradley & Kendall, 2014), for example, interpreting diagnostic information in students’ presented answers. Regarding physical resemblance, videos showing real classroom situations and/or students are often used to increase authenticity (Codreanu et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2022; Nickl et al., 2022; Richter et al., 2022). However, using videos currently often requires a strong predefinition of corresponding environments, restricting the functional correspondence to the real-life context and thus, limiting authenticity in terms of functional correspondence to the real professional task (Grossman et al., 2009). On the contrary, adult actors in role-play simulations may not represent real-life contexts involving young students, such as 6th graders, authentically, restricting physical resemblance. Video simulations allow for exactly this kind of authentic representation of the situation itself. Thus, role-play and video simulations represent two types of simulations, prioritizing functional correspondence vs. physical resemblance in the attempt to design authentic learning experiences.

Influencing person-related factors on perceived task authenticity in simulations

The learners do not always perceive the authenticity of professional tasks provided by the simulation design (Chernikova et al., 2023). Individual perceptions can be influenced by an interplay of very different factors, independent of the actual simulated professional task. First, it can be assumed that when lacking a sufficient professional knowledge base, as it is the case for novices, learners do not know which opportunities for action to look for in a professional context. They do not know the relevant aspects of practice as well as professionals do (Chernikova et al., 2023). For example, previous research shows that preservice teachers have difficulties identifying relevant practice elements in professional settings (Grossman et al., 2009; Hammerness et al., 2002; Star & Strickland, 2008). Following theories of cognitive information processing, according to which, in the absence of knowledge, perceptual processes are more likely to be guided bottom-up by salient information (Gegenfurtner et al., 2023), it could be assumed that design features at the level of physical resemblance play a role in how learners perceive the authenticity of provided tasks.

Second, it can be assumed that it is challenging for novices to judge the authenticity of the professional context if they are not yet familiar with it. In this vein, previous research shows that novel, authentic real-life contexts (i.e., teaching in a real classroom) are overwhelming for preservice teachers (Hammerness et al., 2002). The same could apply to learning in simulations if such learning environments are still unfamiliar. In their meta-analyses, Chernikova et al. (2020, 2023) pointed out that lacking familiarity with a simulated learning environment may lead learners to rely more on easily observable design features on a physical level.

Third, processes of situation-specific processing are often idiosyncratic in nature, depending on individual prerequisites such as prior knowledge, experiences, and interests (Betz et al., 2016; Hammer et al., 2021). Especially when it comes to simulations, it is assumed that individual learning prerequisites not only explain differences in learning success (authors et al., 2022) but are also associated with the processes of situation-specific processing (Codreanu et al., 2020; Nickl et al., 2022). As pointed out, professional knowledge is regarded as a major prerequisite for how learning processes are affected by the design features of the learning environment. Regarding theories of cognitive information processing, it is assumed that, especially for learners with little professional knowledge, highly interactive settings entail a risk that multiple scopes of action that are not directly relevant to the acquisition of competencies may especially lead to increased extrinsic cognitive load, which could hinder the alignment with the professional tasks, especially for less salient features in the design of the learning environment (Sweller, 2010).

Furthermore, it can be assumed that motivational learning prerequisites act as a so-called door opener for information uptake and knowledge activation in simulations and thus, represent important factors in how learners interact with the learning environment (Kron et al., 2022b). Above all, learners’ individual interest in the learning content, which is understood here as a motivational trait (Krapp, 2002), represents an important factor for how much a learner engages with the learning content (Kron et al., 2022b). Furthermore, learners’ expectancies and utility values regarding the task to be performed influence the actual intensity of action (Wigfield, 1994). Thus, it can be assumed that motivational prerequisites that benefit task processing may also benefit the perception of the authentic design features entailed in a learning task.

However, there are hardly any empirical findings on person-related factors influencing learners’ perceived task authenticity in simulations. A first study investigating the relationship between learners’ learning prerequisites and their perception of task authenticity in a video simulation suggests a minor association (Nickl et al., 2022). But the learning prerequisites were considered as bundles, and the role of the different aspects of authenticity in the design of the simulation remains unexplored.

Research questions

Given the current state of research, the understanding of what to pay attention to when using simulations in university-based teacher education will improve when factors associated with learners’ perception of task authenticity are identified. This study focuses on three possible influencing factors derived from the literature: preservice teachers’ learning prerequisites, their familiarity with enacting a professional task in a certain simulation, as well as the implementation type of the simulation varying the approximation of real-life practice concerning a professional task. In the study, two implementation types of the same computer-based simulation (video /live role-play) are contrasted regarding preservice teachers’ perceived task authenticity. The DiMaL-Simulation (Kron et al., 2024; Marczynski et al., 2022) focuses on fostering preservice mathematics teachers’ diagnostic competence, which is regarded as highly important for classroom assessment, teacher decision-making and adaptive teaching (Behrmann & Souvignier, 2013; Förtsch et al., 2018; Heitzmann et al, 2019; Tröbst et al., 2018). The two implementation types of simulation, which are well-acknowledged in higher education programs, are assumed to reflect different priorities regarding the design of authentic simulation-based learning environments. It is further assumed that they have different advantages for supporting initial skill acquisition. The role-play simulation reduces the complexity of practices concerning the professional task (diagnose a student’s understanding through collecting diagnostic information from a student’s answers) but still offers substantial degrees of freedom regarding professional action (functional correspondence). At the same time, using videos to display real students in the video simulation, increases physical resemblance in contrast to the role-play with adult actors but limits functional correspondence due to predefined choices for action. Thus, although they are parallel in terms of content, the two types of the simulations show different configurations concerning the two aspects of authenticity (Chernikova et al., 2023). To investigate the influence of task familiarity, preservice teachers engaged with one type of simulation (either video or role-play) repeatedly for an initially unfamiliar task. As person-related learning perquisites, we investigate the role of professional knowledge, interest, and task utility value for preservice teachers’ perception of task authenticity. The study focuses on the following research questions (RQ):

  • (RQ1) Does preservice teachers’ perceived task authenticity differ between the two types of the simulation, computer-based video, and role-play simulation (role of aspects of authenticity in design)?

  • (RQ2) Do preservice teachers perceive the task authenticity of the two types of the simulation differently when working through them repeatedly (role of familiarity)?

  • (RQ3) How is preservice teachers' perceived task authenticity related to their individual cognitive and motivational learning prerequisites (role of learning prerequisites)?

Method

The DiMaL -Simulation

The study refers to mathematics preservice teachers’ learning in the simulation-based learning environment DiMaL-Simulation developed to improve preservice teachers’ diagnostic competence (Marczynski et al., 2022). To validly map the acquisition of diagnostic competence in the context of simulations, it is necessary to address holistic, real-life problems based on clear theoretical modeling of the required competence (Shavelson, 2012). In this sense, diagnosing is generally defined as purposefully gathering and integrating information to reduce uncertainty in pedagogical decisions (Heitzmann et al., 2019). Teachers can elicit diagnostic information through questions in classrooms but also in the context of individual conversations with students (e.g., in the form of one-on-one-diagnostic interviews). The DiMaL-Simulation provides an approximation of practice concerning a real-life diagnostic one-on-one interview with a student. The participants’ professional task is to gather relevant diagnostic information about the simulated student’s mathematical understanding of decimal fractions by selecting diagnostic tasks, observing student responses, asking follow-up probing questions, and composing a final assessment of the student’s understanding. Research on the misconceptions and misunderstandings of students about rational numbers and the decimal system has a long tradition in mathematics education. Moreover, these findings are typical content of university teacher education in many countries (e.g., Padberg & Wartha, 2017). In the DiMaL-Simulation, the participants take over the role of a teacher, aiming to diagnose a simulated 6th grader’s understanding of decimal fractions. Four different student case profiles are available for the simulation, varying in their degree of mathematical understanding (variation of difficulty). Furthermore, preservice teachers have access to a set of 35 mathematical tasks ranging from tasks with low diagnostic significance to tasks with a high informative value for gathering diagnostic-relevant information (variation of diagnostic task potential). The simulation is embedded in a web-based interview system that guides participants step-by-step through an introduction phase, an interview phase, and a report phase (see Fig. 1). The introduction phase lasts approximately 15 min, intending to familiarize the participants with the system itself, the simulated setting, the task set, brief background information about the student to be diagnosed, and a fiction contract. The interview phase follows directly after the fiction contract and is limited to a maximum duration of 25 min. During the interview, the participants are asked to select (at least three) tasks from the given task set, which is displayed on a screen, observe the simulated student’s response and solution to that task, and ask further probing questions regarding the student’s solution, if necessary (for the interface, see Fig. 2). During the interview, the participants can choose as many tasks and ask as many probing questions as they want within the given time restriction. After the interview, the participants are asked to assess the interviewed student’s mathematical understanding in an open report as well as a closed rating.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Study design and procedure

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Fig. 2
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Web-based interview system of the DiMaL-Simulation

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The DiMaL-Simulation can be processed in two implementation types: a live role-play, which can be proceeded either computer-based or on-site, and a computer-based video simulation (Kron et al., 2024; authors et al., 2022). Both types of the DiMaL-Simulation are parallel in terms of content. However, they differ in the central design decisions regarding the authentic presentation of the professional task (see Table 1). Regarding aspects of complexity, preservice teachers interact with a real person, namely a trained adult research assistant in the role-play, who acts as a student and follows a guiding script. When providing a task to this live simulated student, participants can observe how the student writes down the solution in real time. Furthermore, their higher scope for their own action approaches closely to a real-life diagnostic interview, for example, by freely asking verbal probing questions. In the video simulation, the simulated student’s answer is represented by videos containing a picture, the handwritten solution of a student, showing the writing process in real time, accompanied by few verbal in a real 6th grader’s voice. Here, the scope of action and interaction are more strongly predefined. A probing question regarding the student’s solution can only be selected from a predefined list. This list of probing questions was established by reviewing preservice teachers’ probing questions from role-play simulations of a former study and was adjusted to the student’s initial solution to the respective task. The answers to these probing questions are then presented in further videos. Regarding the aspects of authenticity in the design, the video simulation contains audio recordings of a real 6th grader’s voice and a picture of a real 6th grader alongside the handwriting video, while in the role-play simulation, the participant sees and hears the adult actor. Regarding the functional correspondence, preservice teachers may freely pose any questions they come up with to gather diagnostic information, similar to diagnostic one-on-one interviews in real-life contexts. Contrary to this, the video simulation restricts participants’ professional action to the analysis and selection of predefined questions, which is different from a real interview.

Table 1 Characteristics of the two implantation types of the DiMaL-Simulation
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Both implementation types of the DiMaL-Simulation have been evaluated as valid learning environments that foster mathematic preservice teachers’ diagnostic competence (authors et al., under review.; authors et al., 2022; Kron et al., 2021).

Sample and study design

The study was conducted during the summer term of 2021 at two German universities. In an experimental design, mathematics preservice teachers who participated in regular mathematics education courses in a secondary school teacher education program were randomly assigned to one of two implementation types of the simulation. N = 119 mathematics preservice teachers (females 62.18%, divers 0.84%) participated in the study (n = 66 video, n = 53 role-play). Participation in the simulation was voluntary and did not influence course grades. The local ethics committee and data protection officer approved the study. On average, the preservice teachers were in their 5th study semester (M = 4.96, SD = 3.04). Based on the degree program curriculum, preservice teachers should already have had the opportunity to gather, to some degree, professional knowledge regarding decimal fractions in their lectures (attended mathematics courses, M = 3.11, SD = 2.81; attended courses in mathematics education, M = 3.03, SD = 1.80). However, the mathematics education course at both universities did not include any learning content regarding diagnostic interviews (see also Kron et al., 2022b). Furthermore, until participating in the study, they had not had the opportunity to participate in simulations as part of their mathematics education courses. Thus, the sample can be regarded as novices with no to little familiarity with diagnosis as professional practice and simulations as a learning setting.

Due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, preservice teachers processed both formats of the simulations online using the video conference software ZOOM. For the role-play, each participant and the research assistant enacting the student case profile met in a web conference room. The solutions to the task of the simulated student were handwritten on an external screen shared by screen sharing (see also Fig. 2). To allow for repeated participation, the four different student case profiles were randomly allocated to each of the four simulations, which were distributed over one semester. The interval between preservice teachers participating in the simulations was 2 weeks each. Before the first simulation, professional knowledge and preservice teachers’ dispositional interest were assessed. In addition, the preservice teachers’ motivational prerequisites were assessed before each simulation. Furthermore, during each simulation, preservice teachers were asked to rate their perception of task authenticity.

Measures

Perceived task authenticity

Preservice teachers’ perception of task authenticity of the simulation was assessed by an established scale (e.g., authors et al., 2010) using three items on a five-point Likert-type scale (0 = not true at all to 4 = very true for me; αat t0 = .88; example item: “The diagnostic interview feels like a real job situation for me”).

Professional knowledge

As cognitive learning prerequisites, preservice teachers’ school-related content knowledge (SRCK; see, for example, Heinze et al., 2016) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) were assessed. SRCK was measured using 12 items to assess mathematical knowledge of decimal fractions. These items required substantial reflection on school mathematics (example item: “Explain on the level of 6th graders, why 0.3 × 0.4 = 0.12 holds. Do not use the common rule for multiplying decimal fractions.”) PCK regarding the teaching and learning of decimal fractions was measured using eight items (example item: Consider this wrong sequence of decimals: 3.03 < 3.033 < 3.33 < 3.0303 < 3.303. The combination of which two misconceptions could have led to this wrong sequence of decimals? Mark those two misconceptions: Ignoring the decimal dot, Dot-separation thinking, Zero makes small thinking, Longer-is-larger thinking). Both tests were initially analyzed in a scaling sample with more than 300 preservice teachers by applying methods of item response theory (see Kron et al., 2022b). Due to the sample size of the current sample, the scaling procedure was replicated by adding the scaling sample to the study sample. In this combined sample, both tests show satisfactory reliability (EAP reliability SRCK = 0.61; PCK = 0.63). Using a one-dimensional, one-parameter logistic Rasch model (Rasch, 1960), individual knowledge scores (person-parameters) for each of the knowledge tests were calculated. The scales were anchored to a mean item difficulty of zero (standard deviation of item parameters, 1.27 for SRCK, 1.11 for PCK). For example, a negative person parameter for a participant indicates solution probabilities below 50% for most (i.e., those with positive item parameters) items.

Interest in decimal fractions and interest in diagnosing decimal fraction understanding

Preservice teachers’ dispositional interest regarding the learning content of decimal fractions as well as their interest in diagnosing decimal fractions were assessed by an adaption of an established scale (Rotgans & Schmidt, 2011) using three items for each scale on a five-point Likert-type scale (0 = not true at all to 4 = very true for me; interest learning content: α = .81 example item: “I enjoy working on tasks of decimal fraction.”; interest diagnosis content: α = .79 example item: “I enjoy working on diagnosing in the field of decimal fraction.”).

Task utility value and task expectancies

Preservice teachers’ task utility was assessed using four items (Wigfield, 1994) on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = not true at all to 4 = very true for me; α at t0 = .89; example item: “I think it is important to be able to solve this task.”). Task expectation was assessed using three items (Rheinberg et al., 2001) on a six-point scale ranging from 0 to 6 (αat t0 = .72; example item: “I believe I am up to the difficulty of this task.”).

Data analysis

We performed all statistical analyses with the R statistical language 4.3.0 (R Core Team, 2023). To answer our research questions (RQ), we used a multilevel framework to account for the nesting structure of the longitudinal data (i.e., four measurement points within persons). That is, we estimated linear mixed-effects models using the \(R\) package lme4 1.1-33 (Bates et al., 2015) and lmerTest 3.1-3 (Kuznetsova et al., 2017) separately for each independent variable (i.e., separately for each research question). First, we performed an intercept-only model (M0) to estimate the weighted mean of the individual means (intercept) and the intra-class correlation (ICC). Second, we included the dichotomous treatment variable as a fixed effect in the model (M1) to gain insights into how the perceived authenticity of video and role-play simulation differed (RQ1). Third, we used the time variable as an ordered factor (also fixed effect) instead of the treatment variable (M2) to gain insights into how the perceived task authenticity of video and role-play simulation changed over time (RQ2). Fourth, we analyzed the interaction of treatment and time as predictors to explore whether the perceived task authenticity differed over time between video and role-play simulation (M3). Finally, to analyze what role individual learning prerequisites (e.g., content knowledge, dispositional interest) played in perceived authenticity over time (RQ3), we included learning prerequisites in addition to the treatment and the time variable. Furthermore, we tested interactions between learning prerequisites and treatment and time (i.e., two interactions). We \(z\)-standardized the individual learning prerequisites before we included them as predictors in the linear mixed-effect models. We used restricted maximum likelihood (REML; Corbeil & Searle, 1976) as REML provides unbiased variance estimates (especially when the number of groups is small; Swaminathan & Rogers, 2008). As only 0.63% of the 30,746 values in the longitudinal data were missing, we applied no missing value treatment. The complete reproducible code and date used for this study can be found in our OSF project (https://osf.io/zy2at/?view_only=decf7051f1494bbd88011ef4119a2a39).

Results

Effects of aspects of authenticity in design on perceived task authenticity

Regarding whether preservice teachers perceived the task authenticity in the two types of the DiMaL-Simulation differently (RQ1), the descriptive statistics in Table 2 show that, on average, the preservice teachers perceived the video simulation as more authentic than the role-play at all four measurement points. Our regression analyses (M1 in Table 3) confirm this impression, where we added the dichotomous treatment variable (video/role-play) as a fixed effect to the model. The results of the regression analysis (see Table 3) showed that preservice teachers perceived the task authenticity in the video type as statistically higher than in the role-play at all measurement points.

Table 2 Descriptive statistics for repeated measure variables, mean value, and standard deviation
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Table 3 Regression of perceived task authenticity on treatment and time
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Effects of familiarity on perceived task authenticity

To answer whether preservice teachers’ perception of task authenticity differed for repeated measurement points (RQ2), we first looked again at the descriptive statistics (Table 2). The results indicate that in both types of the simulation on average, preservice teachers’ perceived task authenticity is higher the more often they participated in the simulation. The results from the linear mixed-effect model (M2 in Table 3) confirm a statistically significant main effect of time (linear). This means that preservice teachers perceived the provided task as more authentic with repeated participation in the simulation. Furthermore, the results obtained from model M3 (Table 3), which include the interaction, additionally indicate that preservice teachers’ task authenticity perception did not change significantly in the two types of video and role-play simulation over the four measurement points.

Effects of learning prerequisites on perceived task authenticity

Research question three focuses on the association between preservice teachers’ cognitive and motivational learning prerequisites and their perception of task authenticity (RQ3). Regarding professional knowledge, the values of preservice teachers’ individual knowledge scores (person-parameters) before working with the simulation indicate that they had acquired rather little professional knowledge in the field so far (SRCK, M = −0.83, SD = 0.83; PCK, M = −0.48, SD = 0.94). Furthermore, they show high to middle values in their interest (interest decimal fraction, M = 3.23, SD = 0.58; interest diagnosis decimal fraction, M = 2.34, SD = 0.64). Preservice teachers’ task utility value ranged on a higher level for all four measurement points and both simulation types, whereas their task expectation shows values between middle to high (see Table 2). The linear regression model shows that the statistically significant main effects of treatment and time remain for all variables when adding these prerequisites to the model. Whereas preservice teachers’ professional knowledge showed no association with how they perceived the authenticity of the provided task in the simulation (SRCK, EST = −.06, p = .342; PCK, EST = .05, p = .435), their task utility value was positively associated with perceived task authenticity over all four measurement points (EST = .13, p < .001). Moreover, there was a difference (i.e., interaction) in this association between both types of simulation (EST = .15, p = .042), meaning that the positive association between preservice teachers’ task utility value and perception of task authenticity was stronger for the video simulation. Furthermore, there was an interaction effect between the treatment and preservice teachers’ interest in the learning content of decimal fractions (EST = .27, p = .050). This means that in the video simulation—independently of the measurement point—those preservice teachers perceived higher authenticity who had a higher interest in the content decimal fraction.

Discussion

The goal of this study was to obtain first insights into whether and how preservice teachers perceived task authenticity when learning in simulations, is affected by different person-related factors (learning prerequisites and familiarity) as well as implementation types, which vary in approximating real-life practices concerning a professional task. Previous research suggests that the authenticity in the design of a learning environment, especially functional correspondence, meaning how a simulation approximates practices concerning a professional task that must be mastered, is associated with higher learning gains for learners (Chernikova et al., 2020; Chernikova et al., 2023). However, a learner’s individual perception of task authenticity can be guided by different factors from the task authenticity provided in the simulation. This could be especially true for learners who are still quite early in their professional development because they might lack the required knowledge to recognize what is authentic in relation to a professional task. Thus, identifying (person-related) influencing factors may help to draw conclusions about what to pay attention to when using simulations for and in the early stages of professional development.

The results of the study imply that, firstly, novices rate task authenticity higher in a simulation that provides a stronger reduction of in complexity in the targeted practices concerning a professional task, where the scope of action and interaction is more strongly predefined than in an interactive setting. Secondly, it seems to be important that novice learners are familiar with learning in a certain simulation, to assess the task authenticity. Thirdly, motivational learning prerequisites not only influence learning outcomes but also appear to play an important role in novices’ situational processing during enacting in a learning environment. This study focuses on novices in two senses. On the one hand, with the focus on mathematic preservice teachers, persons are considered who have had only a few opportunities to acquire professional knowledge and thus, can be regarded as beginners in their professional development. On the other hand, the mathematics preservice teachers in this study have had little exposure to learning in simulations through their educational program at the university. Thus, they are also novices when it comes to working in simulation-based learning environments. It is these two aspects of prior knowledge (professional knowledge base as well as familiarity with the learning context) that are highlighted in the literature as critical to how learners interact with their learning environment (Grossman et al., 2009). Previous studies have demonstrated that important elements of the practice are less perceived by novices, and perception processes seem to be more bottom-up guided in unknown professional contexts (Gegenfurtner et al., 2023). This could be an explanation for why the preservice teachers in this study rated the task authenticity in the video simulation higher than in the role-play of the same simulation, even when working in the environment repeatedly. In the video type, it was possible to provide a higher degree of physical replacement regarding the presentation of the 6th grader student. The result could be a first indication that such authentic design features on the physical level are more overt to novices, and therefore primarily used for the assessment of task authenticity, than authentic representation of a professional practices entailed in the task (especially if it is only an approximation to the real-life). Another explanation could be related to the fit between learning environments and the phases of initial skill acquisition. In current frameworks, it is supposed that learning environments containing approximations to professional tasks should be adapted step-by-step in their authenticity and complexity to the level of professional skill acquisition (Grossman, et al., 2009; Seidel et al., 2015). Otherwise, they could quickly be perceived as challenging and overwhelming (Hammerness et al., 2002; Sweller, 2010), as recent studies have shown, for example, for novice preservice teachers when learning in Virtual Realities (Huang et al., 2022). The results of this study could be an indication that this fit between complexity of learning environment and stage of skill acquisition also plays a role in the extent to which professional tasks can be assessed in terms of their functional correspondence to real-life context. This means that a step-by-step approximation of practice might also be necessary regarding the perception of task authenticity. In summary, the results of contrasting the two implementation types of the same simulation could be an initial indication that, depending on the level of learners’ professional development, the way of approximating real-life practice in simulations might influence the perception of task authenticity.

Furthermore, motivational prerequisites seem to make a difference for novices in their perception of task authenticity. Preservice teachers, who value the task in the simulation, also perceive the authenticity of the task over all four measurement points as higher. This relation is even stronger in the video simulation. Also, in the video simulation, the interest in the learning content of decimal fractions comes into play when perceiving task authenticity. In this vein, those preservice teachers with higher interest also perceive higher task authenticity. These findings may suggest that, especially for novices with low professional knowledge, it seems more crucial to “want” to see the authenticity of a learning task than being able to see it. This points to interests’ function as a door opener for successful learning processes (Betz et al., 2016; Brophy, 2004; Kron et al., 2022b, Krapp, 2002; Nachtigall & Rummel, 2021). The fact that this relationship is particularly evident in the video simulation could again be a first indicator that, especially for our novices’ sample, this triggering function of interest for the perception of task authenticity might primarily target towards overt design features on a physical level of the learning environment. However, this would have to be investigated in further studies that specifically vary different design features of simulations experimentally.

Limitations

For exploring the role of person-related factors and implementation types, which vary in approximating real-life practices concerning a professional task, other than task authenticity itself, in preservice teachers’ perception of task authenticity, two typical simulation types were contrasted, instead of systematically varying single features of the simulations and testing them against each other. This limits the interpretation regarding the influence of single features (such as overt design features on a physical level) and, thus, the contribution to possible questions about how to design simulations for university-based teacher education. However, in the sense of ecological validity, focusing on the configuration of different features in simulations as they occur in reality, the approach increases the practice relevance regarding teacher education because, in real-life contexts, it is often not single isolated features that matter or that can be manipulated, but the configuration of different features within certain types of simulation-based learning environments. Here too, we could not consider all possible types of simulations in the study (e.g., virtual reality). In a first step, we focused on two well-acknowledged types that are already used in teacher education and represent a contrast regarding the approximation of real-life professional tasks and that arise from prioritizing design decisions in favor of functional vs. physical correspondence. Here, we can already recognize differences in preservice teachers’ perception of task authenticity, although the contrast was kept quite small, because both types were computer-based. In further studies, it would be worthwhile to include more types of simulation (i.e., on-site settings) to vary the configurations of design features in simulation and, thus, to obtain a more comprehensive picture of possible influencing factors. However, it also has to be pointed out that the distinction between different aspects of authenticity in the design of simulation-based learning environments constitutes a crucial step in understanding the effects of simulations on learners (Nachtigall et al., 2023), and thus, this study could be seen as an important starting point for further investigations.

Conclusion

To sum up, when using simulation-based learning environments to foster professional competence development in an early stage, this study seems to underpin the requirement to weigh up between how authentically a certain professional task is approximated to real-life contexts versus the functional correspondence to required professional practices, considering learners’ professional development. Ideally, even simulations that prioritize design features for functional correspondence over those for physical correspondence should be perceived as authentic by more experienced learners. However, the study indicates the relevance of overt design features on a physical level as well as the scope of structure and predefinition in task presentation for novices’ processes of situation-specific processing. This must be considered when using simulations in university education. Further, one should perhaps also consider how much novices may still need to be taken by the hand if they are to learn in a more complex but regarding a professional task authentically designed learning environment.