City branding through cinema: the case of postcolonial Hong Kong

Abstract

This study extends the city branding literature by outlining a framework for city branding through cinema. Through cinema, city officials can communicate their city’s identity, highlight the city’s cultural significance, differentiate it from regional rivals, and positively impact tourism. The empirical context of the study is Hong Kong, which continues to negotiate its identity almost two decades after its re-unification with China. A content analysis of 81 Hong Kong films produced between 2008 and 2015 reveal the modalities by which city officials and media producers reify the cultural significance of the city. Specifically, Hong Kong films (1) use local culture as backdrops for stories, (2) emphasize freedom of expression, (3) highlight regional localities, and (4) claim and link historical figures to the city. The study’s findings proffer implications for the city branding literature.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Summary of destination, place and city marketing/branding literatures

Literature	Definition	Target stakeholder	Key activities	Theoretical challenges	Exemplars
Destination marketing/branding	Development and promotion of a destination (city, region, nation) to attract tourism and businesses	External stakeholders (tourists, businesses)	Destinations can be brands; development of a unique destination image that identifies and differentiates the destination	The destination image does not always match those of consumers and local residents	Blaine et al. (2005), Cai (2002), Hosany et al. (2006), Koltringer and Dickinger (2015), Morgan et al. (2003), Pike (2005), and Qu et al. (2011)
Place marketing/branding	Development and promotion of a place (city, region, nation) to encourage tourism, new resident migration, and business relocation	Internal stakeholders (governance, tourism organizations, residents) and external stakeholders	Draws on social marketing, nonprofit marketing, and services marketing. Creation of a positive brand image of a place that reflects the perspectives of all stakeholders	Marketing mix variables do not map well onto place branding; difficult to negotiate place branding’s multidisciplinary roots	Kavaratzis and Ashworth (2008), Hafeez et al., Hafeez et al. (2016), Hospers (2004), Skinner (2008), and Warnaby (2009)
City marketing/branding	Promotion of a city to increase tourism, new resident migration, and business relocation; also a basis for residents to identify with their own city	Internal and external stakeholders	Creation of a positive brand image of a city that reflects the perspectives of all stakeholders	Few measurements studies; limited studies that examine the role of cultural texts in city branding	Braun (2012), Hultman et al. (2016), Kavaratzis (2004), Kavaratzis and Ashworth (2005), Lucarelli and Olof Berg (2011), Merrilees et al. (2009, 2013), and Zhang snf Zhou (2009)

Appendix 2: Examples of coding procedures

Film	Production year	Meaning unit (from researcher’s notes)	Condensed interpretation	Sub-code(s)	Theme
Ten years	2015	Five short films that imagine Hong Kong in the year 2025. Stories are political and critical of the Chinese government… One short film, “Dialect,” depicts a future where Mandarin has become the official language of Hong Kong, and citizens who only speak Cantonese receive fewer benefits than Mandarin speakers	Dystopic visions of Hong Kong under Mainland rule; suppression of local (Cantonese) culture and democratic freedoms	New localism; reflexive visions; social issues	Promote local culture
Permanent residence	2009	Scud’s followup to City Without Baseball. Essentially, a gay love drama, which features gay themes and male frontal nudity	Gay themes and imagery that would be banned on the Mainland	LGBT themes; Sex exploitation	Freedom of expression
The man from Macau	2014	Reboot of the God of Gambler film series starring Chow Yun-Fat. Relative to the oftentimes violent HK originals, the reboot is a crowd-friendly film… The film plays like a long-form commercial for Macau tourism	Gambling comedy series that takes place in Macau, the gambling capital of the East. City imagery abound	Highlight regional localities	Highlight regional localities
Ip Man 3	2015	The third installment of the popular martial arts series, which focuses on the titular character, who is a founder of the Wing Chun style. The film features a short cameo by Bruce Lee, who was considered a “student” of Ip Man	Ip Man’s roots in Hong Kong, and relationship with Bruce Lee are emphasized	Claim historic figures	Claim historic figures

Appendix 3: Triangulation: Examples of intertextual analysis

Movie	Code being triangulated	Excerpt from researcher notes	External source: LoveHKFilm	Secondary external source
Doomsday Party (2013)	Promote local culture	Ho Hong’s bank heist thriller contains political and social overtones that would not be apparent to foreigners, but would be instantly recognized by Hong Kong citizens. Some issues include: political protests, rising real estate prices, government corruption, and the general anxiety that underlies Hong Kong nowadays	Solid debut work from director Ho Hong that manages a decent story alongside constant references to Hong Kong social issues	Among the characters in Ho Hong’s film is a perturbed ex-schoolteacher who spends his days surveying press cuttings documenting Hong Kong’s brewing social turmoil…With its spirited but insubstantial depictions of one too many threads for a two-hour film, his protégé’s self-styled social-critique drama skims the surface of Hong Kong’s social turmoil like a montage of newspaper headlines. (Hollywood Reporter)
Lan Kwai Fong (2011)	Freedom of expression/Highlight regional localities	A “dramedy” about the nightlife and love lives of Hong Kong twenty-somethings. As the movie progress from one nightclub to the next, the viewer wonders if this is a long-form commercial for the Lan Kwai Fong district… Like a film about Las Vegas, the film does not have to be good; it just has to give people reasons to go… The film carries a Category III rating, and features sex scenes that are edgy by HK standards	The English title references Hong Kong’s famed Central-located bar district, where locals and expats meet to network, get drunk and have plenty of sex… That said, some of the new talent here is notable for their willingness to perform in a daring manner; since many come from modeling, they’re used to showing off their bodies, which results in plenty of plunging cleavage, buff chests and bare backs	The first in a trilogy, Lan Kwai Fong tells the story of a group of people who go clubbing together in the famous eponymous district of Hong Kong (often called “LKF”), from their sexual exploits to romantic troubles. Lan Kwai Fong and the other films in its trilogy are considered rather controversial and daring by Asian media standards. (Cinema Escapist)
Ip Man 3 (2015)	Claim Historic Figures	A purely fictional story that expands on the grandmaster’s mythology. The film’s contribution is the implied relationship between Ip Man and a young man named Bruce Lee… an attempt to string together the Hong Kong’s martial arts lineage that began with Ip Man, passed to Bruce Lee, and continued with actor Donnie Yen	Ip Man 3 actually begins with a meeting between Ip Man and Bruce Lee (Chan Kwok-Kwan), but after an audition, Lee is shown the door and Ip Man continues not being Bruce Lee’s master	Since “Ip Man”s release in 2009, a sequel helmed by Yip and four other related biopics have appeared, including Wong Kar-wai’s “The Grandmaster” and novelist-auteur Xu Haofeng’s “The Master,” an apocryphal yarn about the hero’s mentor Chan Wah-shun. Although none have secured the permission of Bruce Lee’s trust to incorporate him (or in this production’s case, his hologram) in a substantial way, “Ip Man 3” comes close to capturing his charisma in two playful scenes. (Variety)