Abstract
The purpose of this article is to discuss clashing narratives around the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup through the lenses of nation branding, public diplomacy, and country image. Beyond the athletic competition, Qatar 2022 was also a cultural clash between East and West, or the Global North and the Global South as it was the first time such a significant mega-event was held in the Arab and Muslim world. While western countries and media framed the event as a sportswashing attempt by Qatar to distract from the death toll of migrant workers, corruption, discriminative policies against the LGBTQ community, and environmental damage, the Qataris positioned the competition as part of a long-term nation building strategy, while counter-criticizing using whataboutism and even through accusations of orientalism and Islamophobia. This case study discusses five areas of dualities in which nation branding and related fields manifested through Qatar 2022: (a) Clashes of civilizations and colonial imperialism, (b) Sportswashing, soft Power, and nation building, (c) Nationalism in a globalized world, (d) Everyone can engage in cultural diplomacy, and (e) Sustainability, inclusion, and greenwashing. The study is significant as it contributes to existing literature nuanced, critical, and at times self-contradicting discussion on sports, nation branding, and related fields, in the context of globalization and the complexity of Middle East geopolitics.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The sport is known as soccer in North America.
The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a collaboration agreement from 1981 between countries in the Arab Gulf, including Qatar, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia, committed to regional growth.
The kafala system is a sponsoring and monitoring system of migrant workers, often used in the Arab Gulf, in which in country sponsors control the visa and legal status of the foreign employee.
The Ballon d’Or is a prestigious individual annual prize awarded to the best football player of the year.
References
Ahmed, S. 2022. A few weeks in Qatar forced me to unlearn some of my own biases about Muslim women in sport. CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/sports/opinion-qatar-muslim-women-shireen-ahmed-dec14-1.6651263
Al Jazeera Staff. 2022a. ‘Racism’: Qataris decry French cartoon of national football team. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022a/11/8/islamophobia-qataris-decry-french-cartoon-of-football-team
Al Jazeera Staff. 2022b. World Cup 2022b: A brief history of US-Iran relations. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022b/11/29/world-cup-2022b-a-brief-history-of-us-iran-relations
Alsaafin, L. 2022. How Morocco gave people from Global South the power to believe. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2022/12/14/how-morocco-has-united-fans-across-the-african-and-arab-world
Anholt, S. 2010. Places: Identity, image and reputation. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Arning, C. 2013. Soft power, ideology and symbolic manipulation in Summer Olympic Games opening ceremonies: A semiotic analysis. Social Semiotics 23: 523–544.
Associate Press and Reuters. 2022. Denmark unveil World Cup ‘protest’ kits criticizing Qatar’s human rights record. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/sep/28/denmark-unveil-world-cup-protest-kits-over-qatar-human-rights-record
Baxter, K. 2022. A guide to the eight stadiums hosting games at the 2022 World Cup. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/sports/soccer/story/2022-11-15/qatar-stadiums-worker-deaths-world-cup-2022
Botte, P. 2022. Calls to kick USA out of the World Cup over one image detail. Fox Sport. https://www.foxsports.com.au/football/world-cup/fifa-world-cup-2022-calls-for-usa-to-be-booted-from-world-cup-over-inflammatory-detail-in-social-media-post-about-iran/news-story/573327792099d13f65f2f0421a3dc08f
Boykoff, J. 2022a. Toward a theory of sportswashing: Mega-events, soft power, and political conflict. Sociology of Sport Journal 39 (4): 342–351. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2022-0095.
Boykoff, J. 2022b. The World Cup in Qatar is a climate catastrophe. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-world-cup-in-qatar-is-a-climate-catastrophe/
Boykoff, J. and D. Zirin. 2022. The big winners of the 2022 World Cup? Qatar and Despots the World over (and Messi). The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/society/world-cup-winner-qatar/
Braddick, I., and A. Kraterou. 2022. Streets of rage. Horror moment boy, 14, is run over and killed as riots erupt across France after Les Bleus beat Morocco in World Cup. The U.S. Sun. https://www.the-sun.com/sport/6919473/clashes-fans-cops-morocco-france-world-cup/
Brannagan, P.M., and R. Giulianotti. 2015. Soft power and soft disempowerment: Qatar, global sport and football’s 2022 World Cup finals. Leisure Studies 34: 703–710.
Brannagan, P.M., and D. Reiche. 2022. Qatar and the 2022 FIFA World Cup: Politics, controversy, change. Cham: Palgrave McMillan.
Brun, E.E., and C. Gomez. 2022. Chapter 4: Politics and geopolitics in staging the FIFA World Cup: What is at stake for the hosting nations? In The business of the FIFA World Cup, ed. S. Chadwick, P. Widdop, C. Anagnostopoulos, and D. Parnell, 47–60. New York, NY: Routledge.
Buhmann, A., and D. Ingenhoff. 2015. The 4D Model of the country image: An integrative approach from the perspective of communication management. The International Communication Gazette 77: 102–124.
Burke, P. 2022. World Cup host Qatar implicated in European Parliament corruption scandal. Inside the Games. https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1131515/qatar-european-parliament
Canada Soccer. (@CanadaSoccerEN). 2022. We are Canada, and together #WeCAN. Twitter. https://twitter.com/CanadaSoccerEN/status/1591820163481042944
Chadwick, S. 2022a. From utilitarianism and neoclassical sport management to a new geopolitical economy of sport. European Sport Management Quarterly 22 (5): 685–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2022.2032251.
Chadwick, S. 2022b. Qatar’s hosting of the FIFA Men’s World Cup: The Issues and Challenges Ahead. SKEMA. https://publika.skema.edu/qatar-hosting-fifa-men-world-cup-issues-and-challenges-ahead/
Chadwick, S., and P. Widdop. 2022. World Cup 2022: Who won the prize for ‘soft power’? The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/world-cup-2022-who-won-the-prize-for-soft-power-195867
Chadwick, S., P. Widdop, C. Anagnostopoulos, and D. Parnell, eds. 2022. The business of the FIFA World Cup. New York, NY: Routledge.
Church, B. 2022. Reaction to Lionel Messi wearing a bisht while lifting the World Cup trophy shows cultural fault lines of Qatar 2022. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2022/12/19/football/lionel-messi-bisht-world-cup-trophy-lift-spt-intl/index.html
Cull, N.J. 2010. Public diplomacy: Seven lessons for its future from its past. Journal of Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 6: 11–17.
Cursino, M. 2022. Adidas row: Morocco demands change to Algerian jersey design. BBC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-63084459
Daskal, O. 2022. The Croatian “character” won again. Calcalist. https://www.calcalist.co.il/sport_news/article/hkpr60boo. (In Hebrew).
David, O., and D. Bar-Tal. 2009. A sociopsychological conception of collective identity: The case of national identity as an example. Personality and Social Psychology Review 13 (4): 354–379. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309344412.
DiMauro, D., and M. Pehme. 2021. The men who sold the World Cup. UK: Discovery+.
Draper, K. 2022. On Fox Sports, viewers get a World Cup scrubbed of controversy. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/22/sports/soccer/fox-sports-world-cup.html
Dubinsky, Y. 2019. From soft power to sports diplomacy: A theoretical and conceptual discussion. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 15: 154–164. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-019-00116-8.
Dubinsky, Y. 2022a. The Olympic Games, nation branding, and public diplomacy in a post-pandemic world: Reflections on Tokyo 2020 and beyond. Place Branding & Public Diplomacy 2022: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-021-00255-x.
Dubinsky, Y. 2022b. Country image, cultural diplomacy, and sports during the COVID19 pandemic: Brand America and Super Bowl LV. Place Branding & Public Diplomacy 2022: 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-021-00257-9.
Duerden, J. 2022. Why Asia Inc. Is rushing to sponsor the Qatar World Cup. NIKKEI Asia. https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Business-Spotlight/Why-Asia-Inc.-is-rushing-to-sponsor-the-Qatar-World-Cup
ESPN. 2022. Saudi declares public holiday after stunning Argentina at World Cup. ESPN. https://www.espn.com/soccer/saudi-arabia/story/4810328/saudi-arabia-declares-public-holiday-stunning-argentina-world-cup
Eurosport. 2022. Iran players stay silent during national anthem at World Cup, fans boo against backdrop of protests. Eurosport. https://www.eurosport.co.uk/football/world-cup/2022/iran-players-stay-silent-during-national-anthem-and-fans-boo-against-backdrop-of-protests-at-home_sto9238078/story.shtml
Fan, Y. 2010. Branding the nation: Towards a better understanding. Journal of Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 6 (2): 97–103.
Fisher, B. 2022. ‘We are Rocky’: Regragui hails Morocco as world’s favourites after Portugal win. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/dec/10/we-are-rocky-regragui-hails-morocco-as-worlds-favourites-after-portugal-win?CMP=share_btn_tw
Fukuyama, F. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Gjerovi, E. 2022. World Cup 2022: Outcry over German news outlets ‘racist Morocco coverage. Middle East Eye. https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/qatar-world-cup-germany-news-outlet-outcry-racist-morocco-coverage
Government Communications Office. 2022. Qatar National Vision 2030. State of Qatar. https://www.gco.gov.qa/en/about-qatar/national-vision2030/?doing_wp_cron=1671501391.9216670989990234375000
Govers, R. 2018. Imaginative communities. Antwerp: Reputo Press.
Gray, M. 2022. ‘It’s not right to go’: The artists who refused to perform at the Qatar World Cup. Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/qatar-world-cup-music-dua-lipa-rod-stewart-b2228085.html
Griffin, T.R. 2019. National identity, social legacy and Qatar 2022: The cultural ramifications of FIFA’s first Arab World Cup. Soccer & Society 20 (7–8): 1000–1013. https://doi.org/10.1080/14660970.2019.1680499.
Guardian Sport. 2022. Mixed reactions as Lionel Messi draped in Arab cloak before lifting World Cup. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/dec/18/mixed-reaction-as-lionel-messi-draped-in-arab-cloak-before-lifting-world-cup
GVA. 2022. Gun Violence Archive. https://www.gunviolencearchive.org/
Hafez, S., and E. Sanders. 2022. World Cup 2022: Fifa president Gianni Infantino accuses West of ‘hypocrisy’. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/63687412
Harpur, C. 2022. What’s happened to Qatar’s women’s team? The Athletic. https://theathletic.com/4009330/2022/12/17/qatar-women-football-world-cup/
Hernandez, C. 2022. Mexico’s World Cup green jerseys pay homage to Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl. ESPN. https://www.espn.com/soccer/blog-the-toe-poke/story/4697071/mexicos-world-cup-green-jerseys-pay-homage-to-aztec-deity-quetzalcoatl
Hobson, J.M. 2014. The clash of civilizations 2.0: Race and eurocentrism, imperialism, and anti-imperialism. In Re-imagining the other: Culture, media, and western-Muslim intersections, ed. M. Eid and K.H. Karim, 75–98. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Holmes, J. 2022. Qatar: Rights abuses stain FIFA World Cup. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/11/14/qatar-rights-abuses-stain-fifa-world-cup
Huntington, S.P. 1996. Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Hussain, U., and G.B. Cunningham. 2022. The Muslim community and sport scholarship: A scoping review to advance sport management research. European Sport Management Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2022.2134434.
Ingle, S. 2022. Stadiums of shame: The numbers World Cup hosts Qatar don’t want to be seen. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/nov/14/stadiums-of-shame-the-numbers-world-cup-hosts-qatar-dont-want-to-be-seen
Jerusalem Post Staff. 2022. Israelis shunned at Qatar World Cup: ‘You are now welcome’. The Jerusalem Post. https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-723449
Khatib, D. 2022. World Cup 2022: Palestine beats Israel on football’s big state. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2022/12/7/fifa-world-cup-palestine-1-israel-0
Leshem, E. 2022. Online, the real winner of the “World Cup of Jerusalem” is Palestine. The Marker. https://www.themarker.com/captain-internet/2022-11-27/ty-article/.premium/00000184-b884-ddea-adcf-fbffc1670000?fbclid=IwAR3LWOECtj4tBSl9FAuCqGedv9U--Ptv4V91IgACWB6FZzaMgsWxC-g53_I. (In Hebrew).
LW. 2022. Qatari organizers hire fake international fans to stage a parade, one more item to the list of oddities. Marca. https://www.marca.com/en/world-cup/2022/11/15/63733499268e3ec6098b4586.html
Madani, D., and M. Lenthang. 2022. U.S. soccer journalist Grant Wahl died of an aortic aneurysm while covering World Cup in Qatar, his wife says. NBC News. Retrieved from https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/us-soccer-journalist-grant-wahl-died-aortic-aneurysm-covering-world-curcna61527
McTague, T. 2022. Qatar won. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/newsletters/archive/2022/12/world-cup-2022-qatar-won/672500/
Media Release. 2022. FIFA World Cup 2022 praised for its “unique cohesive power’. FIFA. https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/organisation/fifa-council/media-releases/fifa-world-cup-2022-tm-praised-for-its-unique-cohesive-power
Murray, S. 2019. Sports diplomacy: Origins, theory and practice, 2018. New York, NY: Routledge.
Nati. (@nati_stv_asf). 2022. What Switzerland and our National Team are all about. Twitter. https://twitter.com/nati_sfv_asf/status/1590284604657000448
Nisse, J. 2022. 'Hope the money was worth it': FOX World Cup segment branded 'gross' and 'embarrassing' by fans as hosts Alexi Lalas and Stu Holden don traditional Qatari clothing with influencer 'Mr. Q'. Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-11549343/FOX-segment-branded-gross-hosts-Alexi-Lalas-Stu-Holden-don-traditional-Qatari-clothing.html
Nye, J. 2004. Soft power: The means to success in world politics. New York: PublicAffairs.
Olley, J. 2022. World Cup: FIFA president Infantino slams Europe's 'hypocrisy' in speech. ESPN. https://www.espn.com/soccer/fifa-world-cup/story/4806508/world-cup-fifa-president-infantino-slams-europe-hypocrisy-in-astonishing-speech
Owen Jones, M. (@marcowenjones). 2022. Just a heads up if anyone sees a story about Qatar bribing Ecuador 7.4 million to lose the opening game—It started here from a well-known disinformation account who is somehow also the main source in the story @amjadt25 . It's already got thousands of RTs though. Twitter. https://twitter.com/marcowenjones/status/1593302904554807296
Panja, T. 2022. How FIFA silenced a world cup armband campaign. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/17/sports/soccer/world-cup-armbands.html?smid=nytcore-ios-share&referringSource=articleShare
Pope, C. 2022. What is the Qatar World Cup 2022 mascot? Meet La’eeb, the “super-skilled” headdress. FourFourTwo. https://www.fourfourtwo.com/features/what-is-the-qatar-world-cup-2022-mascot-meet-laeeb-the-super-skilled-headdress
Reiche, D. 2022. A successful FIFA World Cup 2022. How Qatar proved its critics wrong and can continue to do so. Georgetown University Qatar. https://cirs.qatar.georgetown.edu/a-successful-fifa-world-cup-2022-how-qatar-proved-its-critics-wrong-and-can-continue-to-do-so/?fbclid=IwAR0bvfWhX3-fmnC0Sbm8fDiLVmHpZg37Pcnvw7EygSM5QqiuJ54IRGL2590
Reuters. 2022. Argentina declares national holiday for World Cup celebration Tuesday. ESPN. https://www.espn.com/soccer/argentina-arg/story/4835380/argentina-declares-national-holiday-for-world-cup-celebration-on-tuesday
Rofe, S. 2022. Chapter 5: Diplomacy, international relations, soft power and the FIFA World Cup. In business of the FIFA World Cup. In The business of the FIFA World Cup, ed. S. Chadwick, P. Widdop, C. Anagnostopoulos, and D. Parnell, 61–72. New York, NY: Routledge.
Ronay, B. 2022a. The winner is … Qatar: Curtain comes down on Project Hard Football Power. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022a/dec/19/the-winner-is-qatar-project-hard-football-power-world-cup-2022a?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other
Ronay, B. 2022b. As Qatar’s World Cup ends it is time for truth: Fifa chose death and suffering. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022b/dec/16/as-qatars-world-cup-ends-it-is-time-for-truth-fifa-chose-death-and-suffering?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other
Ronay, B. 2022c. Qatar 2022c: Shifting sands where the real and almost-real collide. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022c/dec/18/qatar-2022c-shifting-sands-where-the-real-and-the-almost-real-collide-world-cup?CMP=share_btn_tw
Said, E.W. 1993. Culture and Imperialism. New York, NY: Vintage Books.
Said, E.W. 2003. Orientalism. London, England: Penguin Classics.
Selección Uruguaya. (@Uruguay). 2022. Recorrimos el @Uruguay_Natural en busca de los elegidos de @AlonsoDT para el Mundial de Catar. ¡Vamos por el sueño! #ElEquipoQueNosUne. Twitter. https://twitter.com/Uruguay/status/1590839075736813569
Sky News. 2022. Power Game: The Story of Qatar 2022. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDodhDfYVWI
Slot, O. 2022. Invisible Qataris showed no accountability. The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ba569a2a-7ef3-11ed-bc2d-0c63022989a8?shareToken=fa51614c0b17c76fbec667a5e3944530
Smith, R. 2022. When World Cup reality isn't what it seems. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/16/sports/world-cup/qatar.html?smid=nytcore-ios-share&referringSource=articleShare
The Associated Press. 2015. Tainted members of FIFA’s executive committee since 2010. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/611ed316520840f9869a903b883db6da
The Guardian. 2022. The Guardian view on Qatar’s World Cup: sportswashing stains football’s image. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/nov/13/the-guardian-view-on-qatars-world-cup-sportwashing-stains-footballs-image
Tifo Football. 2022. The Qatar World Cup explained—Episode one. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITKOCKpEca8
TMZ. 2022. Maluma World Cup grilling over Qatar boycott... Walks out of interview. TMZ. https://www.tmz.com/2022/11/18/maluma-grilled-world-cup-qatar-boycott-walks-out-interview/
Vox. 2022. How migration has shaped the World Cup. VOX. https://www.vox.com/c/world/2022/12/8/23471181/how-migration-has-shaped-the-world-cup
Wahl, G. 2022. World Cup Daily, Day 25. Fútbol with Grant Wahl. https://grantwahl.substack.com/p/world-cup-daily-day-25
Waterson, J. 2022. A fortune’s coming home: How British PR firms won big representing Qatar. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/dec/16/how-british-pr-firms-won-big-representing-qatar-2022-world-cup?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter
Woods, R., and N. Butler. 2021. Social issues in sport, 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Zirin, D., and J. Boykoff. 2022. Palestine: The unexpected star of the 2022 World Cup. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/world/palestine-world-cup-2022/
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Dubinsky, Y. Clashes of cultures at the FIFA World Cup: Reflections on soft power, nation building, and sportswashing in Qatar 2022. Place Brand Public Dipl (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-023-00311-8
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-023-00311-8