Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A mini-survey of moulds and mycotoxins in locally grown and imported wheat grains in Nigeria

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Mycotoxin Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A preliminary survey involving limited sample size was conducted to determine the spectrum of moulds and mycotoxins in wheat grains from flour mills and local markets in Nigeria. Fourteen wheat samples were analyzed for moulds using standard mycological methods and for toxic fungal metabolites using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method. Fusarium (range of incidence 12.5–61.7%) dominated in the wheat grains though species of Aspergillus (range of incidence 2.24–3.86%) were also recovered from the samples. The identified fungal species were Aspergillus flavus (7.7%), Aspergillus niger clade (2.6%), Fusarium avenaceum (10.9%), Fusarium culmorum (22.4%) and Fusarium graminearum (56.4%). A total of 54 microbial metabolites were detected in the samples at concentration ranging between 0.01 μg/kg for macrosporin and 2560 μg/kg for deoxynivalenol. Among the four mycotoxins addressed by regulations in the European Union (EU) found in the samples, deoxynivalenol (incidence 100%) dominated in the samples and its levels exceeded the maximum acceptable EU limit (750 μg/kg) in 36% of the samples. This report underscores the need for more robust surveys with larger sample sizes and across several agro-ecologies in the country.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdus-Salaam R, Fanelli F, Atanda OO, Sulyok M, Cozzi G, Bavaro S, Krska R, Logrieco AF, Ezekiel CN (2015) Fungal and bacterial metabolites associated with natural contamination of locally processed rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Nigeria. Food Addit Contamin Part A 32:950–959

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abia WA, Warth B, Sulyok M, Krska R, Tchana AN, Njobeh PB, Dutton MF, Moundipa PF (2013) Determination of multi-mycotoxin occurrence in cereals, nuts and their products in Cameroon by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Food Control 31:438–453

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alexa E, Dehelean CA, Poiana M, Radulov I, Cimpean A, Bordean D, Tulcan C, Pop G (2013) The occurrence of mycotoxins in wheat from western Romania and histopathological impact as effect of feed intake. Chem Cent J 7:99

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Birck NMM, Lorini I, Scussel VM (2006) Fungus and mycotoxins in wheat grain at post harvest. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection (198–205), ABRAPOS

  • CIMMYT (2001) Characterization of maize germplasm grown in Eastern and Southern Africa. In Vivek B, Banziger M and Pixley KV. Results of the 2000 regional trials coordinated by CIMMYT. Environments, Harare

  • Covarelli L, Beccari G, Prodi A, Generotti S, Etruschi F, Juan C, Ferrer E, Mañes J (2015) Fusarium species, chemotype characterisation and trichothecene contamination of durum and soft wheat in an area of central Italy. J Sci Food Agr 95:540–451

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • European Food Safety Authority (2005) Opinion of the scientific panel on contaminants in food chain on a request from the commission related to ergot as undesirable substance in animal feed. EFSA J 225:1–27

  • Ezekiel CN, Odebode AC, Fapohunda SO (2008) Zearalenone production by naturally occurring Fusarium species on maize, wheat and soybeans from Nigeria. J Biol Environ Sci 2:77–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Ezekiel CN, Sulyok M, Warth B, Krska R (2012) Multi-microbial metabolites in fonio millet (acha) and sesame seeds in Plateau State, Nigeria. Eur Food Res Technol 235:285–293

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher NL, Burgess LW, Toussoun TA, Nelson PE (1982) Carnation leaves as a substrate and for preserving cultures of Fusarium species. Phytopathology 72:151–153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2004) Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed in 2003. Food and Nutrition Papers No. 81. FAO, Rome

  • Ghebremeskel M, Langseth W (2001) The occurrence of culmorin and hydroxi-culmorins in cereals. Mycopathologia 152:103–108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez HH, Moltó GA, Pacin A, Resnik SL, Zelaya MJ, Masana M, EJ M (2008) Trichothecenes and mycoflora in wheat harvested in nine locations in Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Mycopathologia 2:105–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarolim K, Del Favero G, Ellmer D, Stark TD, Hofmann T, Sulyok M, Humpf HU, Marko D (2016) Dual effectiveness of Alternaria but not Fusarium mycotoxins against human topoisomerase II and bacterial gyrase. Arch Toxicol. doi:10.1007/s00204-016-1855-z

    Google Scholar 

  • Klich MA (2002) Identification of common Aspergillus species. Centraal bureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Lancova K, Hajslova J, Kostelanska M, Kohoutkova J, Nedelnik J, Moravcova H, Vanova M (2008) Fate of trichothecene mycotoxins during processing: milling and baking. Food Addit Contamin Part A 25:650–659

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Magan N, Hope R, Cairns V, Aldred D (2003) Post-harvest fungal ecology: impact of fungal growth and mycotoxin accumulation in stored grain. European J Plant Pathol 109:723–730

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Magan N, Aldred D, Mylona K, Lambert RJ (2010) Limiting mycotoxins in stored wheat. Food Addit Contamin 27:644–650

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Makun HA, Anjorin ST, Moronfoye B, Adejo FO, Afolabi OA, Fagbayibo G, Balogun BO, Surajudeen AA (2010) Fungal and aflatoxin contamination of some human food commodities in Nigeria. Afr J Food Sci 4:127–135

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malachova A, Sulyok M, Beltrán E, Berthiller F, Krska R (2014) Optimization and validation of a quantitative liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometric method covering 295 bacterial and fungal metabolites including all regulated mycotoxins in four model food matrices. J Chromatogr A 1362:145–156

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Müller MEH, Korn U (2013) Alternaria mycotoxins in wheat—A 10 years survey in the Northeast of Germany. Food Control 34:197–198

  • Nash SN, Snyder WC (1962) Quantitative estimations by plate counts of propagules of the bean rot Fusarium in field soils. Phytopathology 52:567–572

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson PE, Toussoun TA, Marasas WFO (1983) Fusarium species: an illustrated manual for identification. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen PH, Nielsen KF, Ghorbani F, Spliid NH, Nielsen GC, Jørgensen LN (2012) Occurrence of different trichothecenes and deoxynivalenol-3-β-d-glucoside in naturally and artificially contaminated Danish cereal grains and whole maize plants. Mycotoxin Res 28:181–190

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riba A, Mokrane S, Mathieu F, Lebrihi A, Sabaou N (2008) Mycoflora and ochratoxin a producing strains of Aspergillus in Algerian wheat. Int J Food Microbiol 122:85–92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues I, Naehrer K (2012) A three-year survey on the worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs and feed. Toxins 4:663–675

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Samson RA, Hoekstra ES, Frisvad JS, Filtenborg O (1995) Methods for the detection and isolation of food-borne fungi. In: Samson RA, Hoekstra ES, Frisvad JC, Filtenborg O (eds) Introduction to food-borne fungi. Centraal Bureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, pp. 235–242

    Google Scholar 

  • Shin S, Torres-Acosta JA, Heinen SJ, McCormick S, Lemmens M, Paris MPK, Berthiller F, Adam G, GJ M (2012) Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana expressing a barley UDP-glucosyltransferase exhibit resistance to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol. J Exp Bot 63:4731–4740

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Skrbic B, Zivancev J, Durisic-Mladenoc N, Godula M (2012) Principal mycotoxins in wheat flour from the Serbian market: levels and assessment of the exposure by wheat-based products. Food Control 25:389–396

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sulyok M, Krska R, Schuhmacher R (2007) A liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometric multi-mycotoxin method for the quantification of 87 analytes and its application to semi-quantitative screening of moldy food samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 389:1505–1523

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tancinova D, Kacaniova M, Javorekova S (2001) Natural occurrence of fungi in feeding wheat after harvest and during storage in the agricultural farm facilities. Biologia (Bratisl) 56:247–250

    Google Scholar 

  • Vejdovszky K, Warth B, Sulyok M, Marko D (2016) Non-synergistic cytotoxic effects of Fusarium and Alternaria toxin combinations in Caco-2 cells. Toxicol Lett 241:1–8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warth B, Parich A, Atehnkeng J, Bandyopadhyay R, Schuhmacher R, Sulyok M, Krska R (2012) Quantitation of mycotoxins in food and feed from Burkina Faso and Mozambique using a modern LC-MS/MS multitoxin method. J Agric Food Chem 60:9352–9363

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warth B, Sulyok M, Berthiller F, Schuhmacher R, Krska R (2013) New insights into the human metabolism of the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. Toxicol Lett 220:88–94

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Western Organization Resource Council (2002) United States wheat production. http://www.worc.org/userfiles/WORCproductionfactsheet.pdf. Accessed 15 Jan 2016

  • World Health Organization (WHO) (2003) Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed. Available online: http://www.fao.org/dorep/007/y5499e/y5499ee00.htm. Accessed 15 Jan 2016

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Crop Protection, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria

    Ayotokunbo O. Egbontan, Clement G. Afolabi & Ololade A. Enikuomehin

  2. Department of Pure and Applied Botany, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria

    Iyabode A. Kehinde

  3. Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria

    Chibundu N. Ezekiel

  4. Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz-Str. 20, A-3430, Tulln, Austria

    Michael Sulyok, Benedikt Warth & Rudolf Krska

  5. Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringerstr. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria

    Benedikt Warth

Authors
  1. Ayotokunbo O. Egbontan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Clement G. Afolabi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Iyabode A. Kehinde
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ololade A. Enikuomehin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Chibundu N. Ezekiel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Michael Sulyok
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Benedikt Warth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Rudolf Krska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Clement G. Afolabi.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

None.

Electronic supplementary material

Table S1

(DOC 98 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Egbontan, A.O., Afolabi, C.G., Kehinde, I.A. et al. A mini-survey of moulds and mycotoxins in locally grown and imported wheat grains in Nigeria. Mycotoxin Res 33, 59–64 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-016-0264-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-016-0264-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation