1 Introduction

When individuals feel a sense of belonging to a group, they perceive themselves as part of the group, and feel an emotional bond to it. The need for belonging is considered as a basic human need (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Bowlby, 1969, 1973; Cohen, 1982, 1985; Epstein, 1992; Glasser, 1986; Maslow, 1968, 1971). According to Maslow’s motivation theory, Strayhorn (2012) argued that the sense of belonging must be met before higher-order needs such as self-esteem and self-actualization. Belonging is a fundamental motivator, and individuals of all ages are motivated to find and maintain a sense of belonging (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Expressions such as ’I’m part of this group’ and ’This is my group’ indicate a sense of belonging. This becomes even more critical during times of vulnerability (Strayhorn, 2012). Belonging to a group can provide support for individuals facing challenges. This is also valid for school communities, which offer both educational and psychological benefits (Arslan et al., 2020; Tian et al., 2016; Allen et al., 2018a). Being part of a school community can make students feel influential and respected (Booker, 2004). Numerous studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between a person’s sense of belonging to a school and their academic achievement, motivation, and well-being (Allen et al., 2018a; Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Sánchez et al., 2005). Furthermore, students with a strong sense of belonging exhibit fewer internalizing and externalizing behaviors (Allen et al., 2017; Anderman, 2003; Goodenow & Grady, 1993).

1.1 School Belonging

Since the 1990s, school belonging has become a significant issue in education. The primary reason for this is that a sense of belonging is a source of motivation that can influence student behaviour. School belonging creates a shared identity that contributes to motivation and positive goal-seeking (Dunleavy & Burke, 2019). If individuals feel a sense of belonging to a school, they are likely to feel happy, satisfied, cheerful, and peaceful (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Students who have a strong sense of belonging to their school perceive it as both beneficial and enjoyable (Gillen-O’Neel & Fuligni, 2013). They also tend to have high self-esteem and good general health (Ma, 2003). Goodenow (1993), one of the pioneers in the study of school belonging, defined it as a student’’s sense of acceptance, respect, and inclusion by peers and adults in the school community. This feeling is reinforced by others in the school’s social environment. Osterman’s (2000) comprehensive review of school belonging approached the concept from a community perspective, associating it with a sense of community and acceptance. Korpershoek et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis study which revealed a positive relationship between school belonging and academic achievement, behavioral commitment, motivation, self-esteem, positive perception of school, and self-efficacy. Previous studies have shown that school belonging was negatively associated with negative behaviours and attitudes, such as anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts, negative affect, school dropout, and drug use (Anderman, 2003; Loukas et al., 2010; McNeely & Falci, 2004).

Studies on students’ sense of belonging to school have also investigated the factors that could reduce the feeling of belonging. One of those factors is non-attendance (Yorğun, 2014). Discrimination and alienating experiences in schools have also been found to have reduced the feeling of school belonging, which can also lead to academic failure. Additionally, academic instability is another factor that can reduce school belonging (Johnson et al., 2020). In their meta-analysis study of 51 students, Allen et al. (2018a) investigated the relationship between school belonging and mental health. The study found that high levels of anxiety, stress, mental illness, and negative behaviours could reduce a child’s sense of school belonging. Conversely, when a student feels respected, loved, and accepted by their peers and teachers, they are more likely to invest in their academic success and experience fewer learning difficulties and less school failure (Li et al., 2020).

These research results shows that students who establish a positive interaction with their teachers and feel a sense of belonging to school are more likely to have higher educational expectations (Wong et al., 2019b). Positive school attitudes are associated with a strong sense of belonging (Cockerill, 2019). Thus, principals must provide a social and academic environment where students feel happy and safe to enhance their sense of belonging to the school (Cunningham, 2007; Rowe & Stewart, 2011; Sarı, 2013; Whitlock, 2006). The school is defined as a social process that enables students to learn by communicating and interacting with people around them, especially with their teachers and classmates (Sánchez et al., 2005). School practices such as interacting with peers, participating in academic processes, receiving fair and effective discipline, and engaging in extracurricular activities can foster a sense of belonging (Crouch et al., 2014; Ma, 2003; Libbey, 2004; Fredricks et al., 2004).

1.2 Ecological System Theory

Ecological System Theory, as theorized by Bronfenbrenner (1979), uses the terms ‘ecology’ and ‘ecosystem’ metaphorically to describe educational settings. The model consists of a series of nested contextual environments, with the developing individual/learner at the center and emphasis on their synergistic relationships (Navarro et al., 2022; Rosa & Tudge, 2013). The theory is represented by discrete circles connected by the individuals involved in the system. The diagram depicts four layers surrounding the focal individual in the center: Microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach has been used as a model in school belonging research, as demonstrated in various studies (Allen et al., 2016, 2018b, 2021a, 2022, 2023). In their conceptual study, Allen et al. (2016) applied the ecological approach to school belonging and presented it as a framework with a synergistic relationship between individual, microsystem (relationships with parents, peers, and teachers), mesosystem (school rules and practices), exosystem (extended school community), and macrosystem (legislation, norms, and policy) elements (see Fig. 1). Allen et al. (2018b) discovered that positive interactions with classmates and teachers at various levels of the socio-ecological framework are crucial components of school belonging. In their large-scale study with PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) data, Allen et al. (2022) investigated socio-ecological variables that predict belonging.

Fig. 1
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The socio-ecological framework of school belonging (Allen et al., 2016).

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1.3 Current Study

This study aims to examine students’ perspectives on how society, principals, teachers, guidance counselors, families and students can increase students’ school belonging from a socio-ecological systems perspective. It is important to note that a student’s sense of belonging to school cannot be considered independent from their environment. The literature has focused on defining, measuring, and highlighting the importance of a sense of school belonging. In addition to a significant body of research supporting the importance of school belonging, educators worldwide are making efforts to foster students’ sense of belonging. The current study is valuable as it asks students how belonging can be fostered and examines the role of a student’s surroundings in the development of a sense of school belonging in a socio-ecological context.

Furthermore, this study intends to bridge the research-practice gap in schools by focusing on behaviours that promote school belonging, using Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) socio-ecological framework for human development. School belonging is a complex sociological phenomenon and should be evaluated by considering the various components within the school social community. The authors aimed to explore the impact of a student’s social environment on their sense of school belonging, using the socio-ecological system model. The study gathered responses to the question ‘What should the society, families, principals, teachers, guidance counsellors and students do to make students feel belonging to the school?’ Additionally, this study is significant as it was conducted in a country with a collective culture and high power distance. School belonging is sensitive to cultural, environmental, and geographical contexts and experiences (Allen et al., 2021b). Most studies on school belonging are conducted in Western countries. The findings of this study may also contribute to the literature in this area.

1.3.1 Türkiye Context

The education system in Türkiye consists of primary schools (grades 1, 2, 3 and 4), secondary schools (grades 5, 6, 7 and 8) and high schools (grades 9, 10, 11 and 12). High schools are divided into two categories: General and Vocational and Technical. General High Schools in Türkiye: Anatolian High Schools, Science High Schools, Social Sciences High Schools, Fine Arts High Schools, Sports High Schools and Private High Schools. Vocational and Technical High Schools: Anatolian Religious High Schools, Vocational and Technical High Schools, Vocational Training Centres, Special Vocational High Schools and Private Vocational High Schools (MoNE, 2023). After high school, students can continue their university education by passing university examinations (MoNE, 2023). In Türkiye, there are national and international cooperation projects, policies and practices implemented by the MoNE to increase students’ school attachment. As in the rest of the world, school belonging is declining at the upper secondary level in Turkiye. When analysing the international average of TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) 2019, it is noteworthy that students’ school belonging is low in Türkiye, especially at the eighth grade level, as in the rest of the world. On the other hand, the enrolment rate of 15–19 year olds in Türkiye, which covers the secondary level where compulsory education continues, is 69%, which is significantly lower than the OECD average (83%) (OECD, 2022). Early school leaving is an important consequence of low school membership. Arslan et al. (2020), in a study of students aged 10–15 in Türkiye, found that school belonging is an important factor in externalisation and internalisation problems of young people and that interventions for school belonging are needed. In another study conducted by Arslan et al. (2022) on 6th-8th grade students from Türkiye, the importance of school belonging in the context of parental experiences on social-emotional well-being was found to be significant.

2 Method

2.1 Research Design

This study used a basic qualitative research design, also known as general or interpretive qualitative research, ‘to understand how people make sense of their lives and experiences’ (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This design helps researchers to understand how participants perceive a phenomenon, with the main aim of uncovering or interpreting the ways in which they make sense of this phenomenon (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006; Merriam, 2009). Basic qualitative research is appropriate when researchers need to investigate a situation that is not fully understood, or when the study involves exploring lived experiences (Kim et al., 2017).

2.2 Participants

In the study, the maximum variation sampling method was utilized. It aims to purposefully select large situations in order to capture the common dimensions and underlying experiences of a phenomenon (Patton, 2014, p. 235–243). According to Patton (2014, p. 46), the logic and power of probability sampling derives from the purpose of generalisation. The logic and power of purposive sampling derives from its emphasis on deep understanding. This leads to the selection of information-rich situations for the depth of study. Variation was made in the selection of gender, year level, schools and geographical region. Data were collected from students attending high schools in six provinces at the NUTS 1 level in Türkiye (Eurostat, 2016). The differences between the provinces at level 1 are due to population, geographical characteristics, and social conditions. The schools of the students participating in the study are Anatolian High School, Anatolian Vocational High School and Anatolian Religious High School. The reason for the diversity in the gender of the students is the difference in the school affiliation of girls and boys. In the report analysing the PISA and TIMSS reports prepared in Türkiye in the context of gender, it is stated that female students feel that they belong to school more than male students (ERG, 2018). 876 students took part in the study. It is natural to reach a larger sample in qualitative survey research compared to interviews. This leads to the selection of information-rich situations for the depth of the study. A larger sample can also help to compensate for possible short answers in a qualitative survey (Terry & Braun, 2017).

The researchers obtained approval from the Ethics Committee (number: E-62310886-600-21980) of [Blinded] University Social and Human Sciences Art and Research Board before the study was conducted. Students were informed that their participation was voluntary and that all responses would be kept confidential. To ensure the privacy of the participants, each participant was given a code and number by the researchers. For example, a student taking part in the research will be identified as ‘S20’. Information about the gender and year of the participants is shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1 Grades and gender of students
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2.3 Data Collection and Analysis

Students’ opinions were gathered using an online qualitative survey, which consisted of a series of open-ended questions prepared by the researchers. Rather than choosing from predetermined response options, as in quantitative surveys, participants responded by writing answers in their own words. By subjectively revealing their experiences, narratives, practices and discourses, participants provide researchers with a rich and dense data pool (Braun & Clarke, 2013). These qualitative data allow for what is important to participants and give researchers access to their language and terminology (Braun et al., 2021). Qualitative surveys also aim to identify the diversity of interests within a given population and to reveal significant variations within that population (Jansen, 2010).

Additionally, a key advantage of online qualitative surveys is that they offer openness and flexibility to address a wide range of research questions of interest to researchers. As mentioned earlier, qualitative surveys involve asking participants for their views on sensitive issues; reaching people who are scattered, hard to reach or difficult to access. It may be appropriate when the issue is viewed from a broad perspective (Braun et al., 2021) and there are time constraints on the research. Thus, qualitative online surveys help to capture participants’ experiences, perceptions and practices by providing an important opportunity to collect data with a broad lens on both broad and specific topics (Braun et al., 2021; Terry & Braun, 2017). In this study, the online qualitative survey helped researchers reach students from different states, different schools, and different grade levels, allowing students to easily and honestly express their views on their sense of belonging at school, and ensuring broad participation.

The online qualitative survey includes seven open-ended questions about students’ perceptions of belonging, with a set of questions about students’ gender and grade level. At the beginning of the survey, a participant information page is provided. This section, which described the purpose of the research and key conceptual information about the study, emphasises the privacy and voluntary nature of the participants. In the next section, students were asked to fill in their gender and grade level (9–12). Demographic data was kept in minimum to to give students the comfort of answering the questions without thinking that their identity will be revealed. The third section consists of seven open questions. Finally, the survey included the researchers’ email addresses, with which participants could reach if they had a question. The questions asked to the students in their first language (in Turkish) about their views on school belonging are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Qualitative survey questions
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For data analysis, Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA) was chosen as the most appropriate method for the purpose of this study. During the data analysis phase of the study, the researchers aimed to identify recurring patterns by characterising the data. The findings were presented as repeated patterns and themes. The analysis process included the following steps

  1. 1.

    Students’ responses were analysed independently.

  2. 2.

    Similar and different aspects of students’ perceptions of school belonging were revealed.

  3. 3.

    Students’ emotional expressions were analysed.

  4. 4.

    Recurring patterns in responses were identified.

  5. 5.

    Codes and themes were uncovered by the authors.

  6. 6.

    The authors checked codes and themes repeatedly for relationships and connections between themes.

  7. 7.

    The authors checked the prevalence and appropriateness of the themes.

  8. 8.

    Finally, tables of themes and quotations were created.

The product of basic qualitative research is expected to be quite descriptive. What researchers learnt about the phenomenon was supported by providing rich descriptions. Quotations supporting the findings aimed to contribute to the explanatory nature of basic qualitative research.

2.4 Objectivity, Reliability and Credibility

In order to ensure objectivity, reliability and the credibility of the findings, sevral measures were taken. Objectivity is the effort to keep the unconfirmed bias of the researcher to a minimum (Miles & Huberman, 2021). In this study, the following actions were taken to ensure objectivity:

  1. 1.

    The working process has been clearly explained in detail.

  2. 2.

    The data collection, processing and conversion processes of the study have been strictly followed.

  3. 3.

    Data have been retained to allow re-analysis.

Reliability is the state of being consistent, relatively constant in time, researcher and space (Miles & Huberman, 2021). In this study, the following actions were taken to ensure reliability:

  1. 1.

    There is harmony between the research questions and the research design.

  2. 2.

    Themes were checked repeatedly by the researchers.

  3. 3.

    Quality checks of the data for bias, fraud, etc. have been carried out.

  4. 4.

    The roles of the researchers in the research process are explained in detail.

Credibility (internal validity), on the other hand, is the truth value of the research. Do the results of the study make sense? In this study, the following actions were taken to ensure credibility:

  1. 1.

    The findings and results were expressed clearly and meaningfully.

  2. 2.

    Quotations related to themes were taken from participants’ opinions.

  3. 3.

    Consistency between responses to questions and participants’ views was checked.

  4. 4.

    Consideration was given to the voluntary nature of the participants in the study.

3 Findings

A total of six categories were emerged from the data. These categories were: (1) the role of the society and school belonging, (2) the role of the school principals and school belonging, (3) the role of the teachers and school belonging, (4) the role of the guidance counsellors and school belonging, (5) the role of the families and school belonging, and (6) the role of the students and school belonging. In this section, these categories will be presented along with the sample narrations from the data. Then, these categories will be displayed and explained from a social-ecological perspective in promoting school belonging.

3.1 The Role of the Society and School Belonging

A total of 719 statements were coded to represent the role of the society and school belonging under 12 themes. In Table 3, themes and the sample quotes were presented.

Table 3 What society should do for school belonging
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When Table 3 is analysed, it was observed that students predominantly expressed their opinions on the themes of “support”, “tolerance” and “sensitivity”. In addition to these, there are also themes of communication, equality, activitiy, humane behaviour, motivation, care, interaction, empowerment and appreciation.

3.2 The Role of the School Principals and School Belonging

The roles of the school principal were represented in 12 themes regarding to what principals should do to ensure school belonging; and, 817 opinions were collected under these themes. In Table 4, themes and the sample quotes were presented.

Table 4 What principals should do for belonging
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When Table 4 is analysed, it was observed that the most emphasised themes by the students were “activity”, “tolerance”, “communication” and “interaction”. In addition to these, there are themes of support, creating a school identity, humane behaviours, equality, care, empowerment, sensitivity and motivation.

3.3 The Role of the Teachers and School Belonging

The roles of the teachers were represented in 10 themes. A total of 844 opinions were gathered regarding to the question of what teachers should do to ensure school belonging. Table 5 displays these themes and the sample quotes.

Table 5 What teachers should do for school belonging
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As seen in Table 5, students mostly expressed their opinions on the themes of “interaction”, “tolerance”, “activity” and “support”. In addition to these, there are themes of communication, equality, sensitivity, care, humane behaviour and appreciation.

3.4 The Role of the Guidance Counsellors and School Belonging

The roles of the guidance counsellors were represented in 11 themes regarding to what guidance counsellors should do to ensure school belonging; and, 924 opinions were collected under these themes. In Table 6, themes and the sample quotes were presented.

Table 6 What the guidance counsellors should do for school belonging
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When Table 6 is analysed, it was observed that students predominantly expressed their opinions under the themes of “support”, “communication”, “interaction” and “care”. In addition to these, there are also the themes of organising activities, finding solutions, motivation, being tolerant, equality, humanistic and sensitive.

3.5 The Role of the Families and School Belonging

The roles of the families were represented in eight themes. A total of 935 opinions were gathered regarding to the question of what families should do to ensure school belonging. Table 7 displays these themes and the sample quotes.

Table 7 What families should do for school belonging
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When Table 7 is analysed, it is seen that students predominantly expressed opinions on the themes of "support", "tolerance" and "sensitivity". In addition, there are also themes of communication, interaction, equality, care, and motivation.

3.6 The role of the students and school belonging

The roles of the students were represented in 10 themes. A total of 545 opinions were gathered regarding to the question of what students should do to ensure school belonging. Table 8 displays these themes and the sample quotes.

Table 8 What students should do for school belonging
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When Table 8 is analysed, it was observed that students predominantly expressed their opinions on the themes of “sensitivity”, “communication” and “goal orientation”. Other themes are, desire and interaction, participating in activities, being tolerant, receiving support, caring and socialising.

3.7 School Belonging: a Social-Ecological Perspective

School belonging is related to several factors. The results of this study support the idea of this interconnectedness in that the sense of school belonging could be explained with a comprehensive approach to the school and its environment. To create a framework for the roles of school stakeholders, Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological approach to human development was adapted. The socio-ecological approach highlights that children are influenced by multiple levels and that schools play a significant role in their psychological, social, and overall development. The results of the study are displayed in Fig. 2 within the framework of the socio-ecological system.

Fig. 2
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Social-ecological perspective in promoting school belonging

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Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological approach has four layers: microsystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. The roles emerged from the data were placed in a corresponding layer to help students feel a sense of belonging to the school. The microsystem layer is placed at the center. In this study, students were located at the center of this layer. Families and teachers were also represented in this layer. The second layer is the mesosystem, where guidance councellors would fit. The next layer was exosystem. In this layer, principals were located. At the outer layer is macrosystem which represents the society.

4 Discussion

The sense of belonging to the school is tangible and shared, and everyone is recognised as a valued member of the community. Student development is supported by relationships within an interconnected learning and development ecosystem that includes students, families, teachers, administrators and staff (Akiva & Robinson, 2022). This experience is felt throughout the school. According to Villarroel et al. (2022), school belonging as perceived by fifth and seventh graders is a significant predictor of student life satisfaction. Similarly, Oberle et al. (2011) found that school belonging was associated with higher life satisfaction in their study of fourth to seventh grade students. Varela et al. (2018), in a study of 12-year-old children, suggested that school climate may increase school belonging.

Allen et al. (2016) adapted Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) model to school belonging, placing the student at the centre of the model. They argued that the student’s sense of belonging is supported and hindered by their experiences with different layers of the school community. Allen et al. (2021a) found that individual level, microsystem, and mesosystem factors were significantly associated with school belonging among all students. This study focuses on the centrality of students in feeling a sense of belonging to their school. To achieve this, students are expected to have qualities such as sensitivity, communication skills, goal-setting abilities and socialization in particular. These behaviours can increase the sense of belonging of the individual student who is the focus of the study, as well as the other students who make up the peer group. According to Allen et al. (2016), academic motivation, emotional stability, and personal characteristics are individual factors that positively impact students’ sense of school belonging. Students perceive a greater sense of belonging when they value their school and peers. School belonging encompasses students’ feelings about themselves and the significance, meaning, and value they attribute to their school (Arslan & Duru, 2017). Various studies have found that students need to socialise and set goals in order to feel a sense of belonging at school, including Allen et al. (2021c), (2017), Durlak et al. (2011), Zins et al. (2004), and Zins and Elias (2007).

4.1 Microsystem

The microsystem layer, where the student is located, along with the centre, is the most effective level for students to feel a sense of belonging to the school. According to Allen et al. (2016), the microsystem refers to the level of support that students receive from teachers, parents, and peers. Previous studies have extensively examined the importance of the teacher at this layer in fostering students’ sense of school belonging. In the current study, the microsystem layer consists of two social groups: the family and the teacher, with whom the student has one-to-one contact.

School belonging is primarily affected by the teacher-student relationship (Ahmadi et al., 2020; Bakchich et al., 2022; Cortina et al., 2017; Kiefer & Pennington, 2017; Saroughi & Cheema, 2022; Uslu & Gizir, 2017; Wong et al., 2019a, b). According to Allen et al. (2022), the relationship between students and their teachers is the strongest factor influencing a student’s sense of belonging. In this study, students emphasised that their sense of belonging would increase if they communicated and interacted with their teachers, were tolerated, participated in extra-curricular activities and were supported. Students also commented on the equality of teachers in the classroom and their caring and sensitive approach to students.

These findings are consistent with the broader literature (Allen et al., 2018a, 2021d; Allen & Kern, 2017). Emotional and social support were highlighted as particularly important for school belonging by Allen et al. (2023). School is defined as a social process that enables students to learn by establishing relationships and interactions with the people around them, particularly teachers and classmates (Sánchez et al., 2005). The themes of equality, care, and support identified in this study are consistent with those found in previous research by Ma (2003), Libbey (2004), and Fredricks et al. (2004), who also found that a fair, caring, and supportive educational environment promotes a sense of belonging. Baumeister and Leary (1995) also identified support as a key factor in creating a sense of school belonging among students. Other different studies have highlighted the importance of teacher support in fostering students’ sense of belonging to their school (Allen et al. 2021a, 2018b; Chiu et al., 2016; Wang & Eccles, 2012). The research findings on communication and interaction align with S´anchez et al.’s (2005) results, which suggest that students’ communication and interaction with their teachers and peers are crucial for fostering a sense of belonging.

Similar to our current study, different studies evaluating students’ views have provided rich literature on belonging. According a study conducted on students aged 8–12 from 16 different countries, it was found that the teacher’s fairness and willingness to listen to the students can increase their sense of belonging to the school (Kutsar & Kasearu, 2017). In another study conducted with 12-year-old children in Estonia, it was found that students were more satisfied with school when teachers supported and encouraged them (Kutsar et al., 2019). Studies have shown that students’ perception of their teacher’s fairness is positively related to their sense of belonging to school (Donat et al., 2017; Jiang et al., 2018; Umlauft & Dalbert, 2017; Wong et al., 2022). In a study conducted by Dearth-Wesley et al. (2023) on adolescents, it was observed that bonding with the teacher was a crucial factor in adolescents’ sense of belonging to school. Molinari et al (2013), in their study of secondary school students, found that students’ perceptions of equality in the classroom mediated classroom and school belonging.

At the same level, it is seen that family support, sensitivity and tolerance can especially increase students’ sense of belonging. In the literature, there are studies supporting that students feel more belonging when they receive support, attention and affection from their parents (Benner et al., 2008; Brewster & Bowen, 2004; Wang & Eccles, 2012). The support, sensitivity, tolerance and interactional behaviours expected from families in school belonging are consistent with the findings of Allen et al. (2018a) and (2021a). According to Steinberg and Morris (2001), although there may be conflict with parents, supportive parents are an important source of emotional support. Parents’ perceptions of school and the extent to which they value and support their children’s educational experiences are crucial.

4.2 Mesosystem

In this study, the mesosystem layer includes the guidance counsellor, with whom the student has less contact than the family and the teacher. The relationship between guidance counsellors’ behaviour and students’ belonging is not very common in the literature. The main reason for this may be that guidance counsellors are included under the title of teacher support. However, the right behaviour of the guidance counsellor can make students feel that they belong to the school. It was seen that guidance counseller can increase the sense of belonging to the school, especially through support, communication, interaction and caring. Previous studies have shown that providing a caring and supportive educational environment is one of the factors that creates school belonging (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Fredricks et al., 2004; Libbey, 2004; Ma, 2003). It was also observed that some students expected the guidance counsellors to organise activities that would increase their sense of belonging to the school. The theme that organising activities in school can increase school belonging is similar to the research results of Ma (2003), Libbey, (2004) and Fredricks et al. (2004), Cunningham (2007), Rowe & Stewart (2011), Sarı (2013) and Whitlock (2006). There are also various research findings that good practice, which can be exemplified as participation in extracurricular activities, can provide school belonging (Ma, 2003; Libbey, 2004; Fredricks et al., 2004).

4.3 Exosistem

In this study, the exosystem layer includes the principal. This layer is the environment in which school-based policies are formed, such as creating a shared school vision and ensuring the school’s relationship with the environment. Students expect the principal to be especially tolerant, open to communication, interactive and to organise school activities that make them feel part of the school. It is also observed that some students do not expect the principal to create a school identity to increase their sense of belonging to the school. Cunningham (2007), Rowe and Stewart (2011), Sarı (2013) and Whitlock (2006) also stated that it is important for school principals to provide a social and academic environment where students feel happy and safe in order to increase school belonging. The importance of extracurricular activities has been identified in various studies such as the present study (Cunningham, 2007; Fredricks et al., 2004; Libbey, 2004; Ma, 2003; Rowe & Stewart, 2011; Whitlock, 2006). Furthermore, Whitaker et al. (2022) highlighted the importance of principals valuing interactions and relationships in order for students to feel psychologically safe and belong at school.

4.4 Macrosystem

Finally, the macrosystem layer includes society. Similarly, in the model presented by Allen et al. (2016), the macrosystem layer represents the broader social influence. As schools are open social systems, the support of members of the society is important in the development of schools. Moreover, it is recommended to consult society members in the development of school policies (Garcia-Reid et al., 2005; Whitlock, 2006). It can be said that the society should be sensitive, supportive and tolerant in order to make students feel that they belong to the school. The literature does not give us enough information about the role of the community in school belonging. The main reason for this is that school belonging is seen as a phenomenon that belongs to the school and is analysed with in-school variables.

5 Conclusion, Recommendations and Limitations

The feeling of belonging to school is a beneficial feeling for students, along with academic success, psychological well-being and motivation. The findings of this study indicate that students expect support, sensitivity, tolerance, interaction, communication, caring and equality from all stakeholders of the school. School belonging is extremely complex and linked to some of society’s most intractable problems. If we are to build school systems where belonging is the norm for all students, not just those who are privileged enough to have access to schooling, everyone needs to contribute to creating such a climate in the society. Based on the findings of this research, principals, teachers and guidance counsellors should be more aware of the importance of the sense of belonging, intensify communication with students, pay more attention to students’ opinions, intensify extracurricular activities in school. Society and family should; take more interest in students, communicate and interact with them, not put too much pressure on students.

In addition to its strengths, this study has a number of points for improvement. On the one hand, the quantitative research method makes it possible to access larger data sets and to present the results in a generalisable way to the literature. On the other hand, other elements worthy of investigation can be added to the levels of the social-ecological system. For example, the role of the ministry, where strategic educational policies are formulated, the provincial educational institutions, which manage provincial educational practices, and the district educational institutions in making students feel that they belong to their schools can be studied. This study looked at what needs to be done to ensure belonging from the students’ perspective. A more comprehensive study can be conducted by including the views of teachers, principals and other members of the social-ecological system. This study can be carried out as a project in different countries and cultures. The roles of stakeholders for student belonging in different cultures can be identified and individuals at all levels of the socio-ecological system can be trained to fulfil these roles.