Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

How fast can we read in the mind? Developmental trajectories of silent reading fluency

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The silent reading fluency is not an observable behaviour and, therefore, its evaluation is perceived as more challenging and less reliable than oral reading fluency. The present research is aimed to measure the silent reading speed in a sample of proficient students, assessed by an original silent reading fluency task, based on behavioural indicators of the silent reading speed. A total of 325 high school and university skilled students (age range 14–23 years) have been assessed using 3 tasks aimed to evaluate the oral reading speed (lists of words, lists of pseudowords and narrative text) and one task aimed to measure the silent reading speed. The average silent reading speed in our sample was around 12.5 syll/sec, almost double than the oral reading speed rate. The silent reading speed had an increase from 9.13 to 12.38 syll/sec from the first year of high school (ninth grade) to the fifth year of University. Conversely, the oral reading speed remained substantially unchanged for the entire academic course. Our results showed that the reading fluency in silent mode tends to increase up to the last years of University and it may be considered the most rapid and efficient reading mode. This study highlights the importance of including both silent and oral reading modes in the assessment of the older students and young adults, since silent reading is the main reading mode for proficient readers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adlof, S. M., Catts, H. W., & Little, T. D. (2006). Should the simple view of reading include a fluency component? Reading and Writing, 19, 933–958. doi:10.1007/s11145-006-9024-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Álvarez-Cañizo, M., Suárez-Coalla, P., & Cuetos, F. (2015). The role of reading fluency in children’s text comprehension. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1810. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01810.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arina, S., Iervolino, I., & Stella, G. (2013). Prima raccolta di dati normativi per la valutazione della dislessia evolutiva negli adolescenti su un campione di scuola secondaria di secondo grado (The first collection of normative data for evaluating secondary high school students with dyslexia). Dislessia, 10(1), 9–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, T. A., Torgesen, J. K., & Wagner, R. K. (1992). The role of orthographic processing skills on five different reading tasks. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 334–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Kochva, I. (2013). What are the underlying skills of silent reading acquisition? A developmental study from kindergarten to the 2nd grade. Reading and Writing, 26, 1417–1436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, T. (2001). Extensive reading: Speed and comprehension. The Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal, 1(1), EJ629602.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browman, C. P., & Goldstein, L. (1988). Some notes on syllable structure in articulatory phonology. Phonetica, 45, 140–155. doi:10.1159/000261823.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, R. P. (1989). Silent reading rates in grade equivalents. Journal of Literacy Research, 21(2), 155–166. doi:10.1080/10862968909547667.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornoldi, C., & Colpo, G. (1998). Prove di lettura MT per la scuola elementare (MT reading tests for elementary school). Florence: Organizzazioni Speciali.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cossu, G., Gugliotta, M., & Marshall, J. C. (1995). Acquisition of reading and written spelling in a transparent orthography: Two non-parallel processes? Reading and Writing, 7(1), 9–22. doi:10.1007/BF01026945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and othercognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 277–299. doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr1003_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (2002). Top ten principles for teaching extensive reading. Reading in a foreign language. An International Online Journal, 14(2), 136–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denton, C. A., Barth, A. E., Fletcher, J. M., Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., Cirino, P. T., et al. (2011). The relations among oral and silent reading fluency and comprehension in middle school: Implications for identification and instruction of students with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(2), 109–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. R. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 239–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagliano, A., Ciuffo, M., Ingrassia, M., Ghidoni, E., Angelini, D., Benedetto, L., et al. (2015). Silent reading fluency: Implications for the assessment of adults with developmental dyslexia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(9), 972–980.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., & Papadopoulos, T. C. (2008). Predictors of word decoding and reading fluency across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 566–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafiz, F. M., & Tudoe, I. (1989). Extensive reading and the development of language skills. ELT Journal, 43(1), 5–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, A. D., Skinner, C. H., Williams, J., Hawkins, R., Neddenriep, C. E., & Dizer, J. (2007). Comparing comprehension following silent and aloud reading across elementary and secondary students: Implication for curriculum based measurement. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(1), 9–23. doi:10.1037/h0100101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, G. A. (2006). Oral reading fluency norms: A valuable assessment tool for reading teachers. The Reading Teacher, 59(7), 636–644. doi:10.1598/RT.59.7.3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. E., & Lockhart, A. V. (1919). A study of oral and silent reading in the elementary schools of Evanston. School and Society, 10, 587–590.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juel, C., & Holmes, B. (1981). Oral and silent reading of sentences. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 545–568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendeou, P., Papadopoulos, T. C., & Spanoudis, G. (2012). Processing demands of reading comprehension tests in young readers. Learning and Instruction, 22, 354–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. S., Wagner, R. K., & Foster, E. (2011). Relations among oral reading fluency, silent reading fluency, and reading comprehension: A latent variable study of first-grade readers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 338–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kragler, S. (1995). The transition from oral to silent reading. Reading Psychology: An International Quarterly, 16, 395–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovie-Kitchin, J. E., Bowers, A. R., & Woods, R. L. (2000). Oral and silent reading performance with macular degeneration. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 20(5), 360–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucisano, P., & Piemontese, M. E. (1988). GULPEASE: Una formula per la predizione della difficoltà dei testi in lingua italiana (a formula for estimate the text difficulty in italian language). Scuola e città, 2(3), 110–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marston, D. B. (1989). A curriculum-based measurement approach to assessing academic performance: What is it and why do it? In M. R. Shinn (Ed.), Curriculum-based measurement: Assessing special children (pp. 19–78). New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mather, N., Hammill, D. D., Allen, E. A., & Roberts, R. (2004). Test of silent word reading fluency—Second edition. Austin, TX: Pro-ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCallum, R. S., Sharp, S., Bell, S. M., & George, T. (2004). Silent versus oral reading comprehension. Psychology in the Schools, 41, 241–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S. D., & Smith, D. E. P. (1990). Relations among oral reading, silent reading and listening comprehension of students at differing competency levels. Reading Research and Instruction, 29, 73–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niedo, J., Lee, Y. L., Breznitz, Z., & Berninger, V. (2014). Computerized silent reading rate and strategy instruction for fourth graders at risk in silent reading rate. Learning Disability Quarterly, 37(2), 100–110. doi:10.1177/0731948713507263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, M. L., & Wamre, H. M. (1990). Curriculum-based measurement and developmental reading models: Opportunities for cross-validation. Exceptional Children, 57, 16–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price, K. W., Meisinger, E. B., Louwerse, M. M., & D’Mello, S. K. (2012). Silent reading fluency using underlining: Evidence for an alternative method of assessment. Psychology in the Schools, 49(6), 606–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Priora, S. M., Fenwicka, K. D., Saundersa, K. S., Ouellettea, R., O’Quinna, C., & Harveya, S. (2011). Comprehension after oral and silent reading: Does grade level matter? Prior Empirical Research, 50(3), 183–194. doi:10.1080/19388071.2010.497202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowell, E. H. (1976). Do elementary students read better orally or silently? The Reading Teacher, 29, 367–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, G. S. (2013). Measuring reading performance. Vision Research, 20(90), 43–51. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2013.02.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sartori, G., Job, R., & Tressoldi, P. E. (1995). Batteria per la valutazione della dislessia e della disortografia evolutiva. Firenze: Organizzazioni Speciali.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumm, J. S., & Baldwin, R. S. (1989). Cue system usage in oral and silent reading. Journal of Reading Behavior, 21, 141–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, P. H., Aro, M., & Erskine, J. M. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal Psychology, 94(2), 143–174. doi:10.1348/000712603321661859.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Share, D. L. (2008). On the anglocentricities of current reading research and practice: The perils of overreliance on an “outlier” orthography. Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), 584–615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shinn, M. R., & Shinn, M. M. (2002). AIMSweb training workbook: Administration and scoring of reading maze for use in general outcome measurement. Eden Prairie, MN: Edformation Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, C. H., Neddenriep, C. E., Bradley-Klug, K. L., & Ziemann, J. M. (2002). Advances in curriculum-based measurement: Alternative rate measures for assessing reading skills in pre- and advanced readers. Behavior Analyst Today, 3, 270–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E., & Cunningham, A. E. (1993). Where does knowledge come from? Specific associations between print exposure and information acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 211–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stella, G., & Tintoni, C. (2007). Investigation and survey on reading skill in Italian secondary school. Dislessia, 4(3), 271–285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trauzettel-Klosinski, S., Dietz, K., & Group, I. R. S. (2012). Standardized assessment of reading performance: The new international reading speed texts IReST. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 53(9), 5452–5461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van den Boer, M., van Bergen, E., & de Jong, P. F. (2014). Underlying skills of oral and silent reading. Journal Experimental Child Psychology, 128, 138–151. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.07.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, R. K. (2011). Relations among oral reading fluency, silent reading fluency, and reading comprehension: A latent variable study of first-grade readers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(4), 338–362. doi:10.1080/10888438.2010.493964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West, S. K., Rubin, G. S., Munoz, B., Abraham, D., & Fried, L. P. (1997). Assessing functional status: Correlation between performance on tasks conducted in a clinic setting and performance on the same task conducted at home. The Salisbury eye evaluation project team. Journals of Gerontology Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 52(4), 209–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Disability and Specific Learning Disorders Centre, University of Messina, Messina, Italy

    Massimo Ciuffo & Alice Baradello

  2. Jane Myers Associates Ltd, Windsor, Berkshire, UK

    Jane Myers

  3. Department of Cognitive Sciences, Psychology, Education, and Cultural Studies, University of Messina, Messina, Italy

    Massimo Ingrassia

  4. Developmental Linguistic and Cognitive Disability Centre - Ausl Città di Bologna, Bologna, Italy

    Antonio Milanese

  5. Division of Child Neurology and Psychiatry, University of Messina, Messina, Italy

    Maria Venuti, Ausilia Alquino & Antonella Gagliano

  6. Department of Education and Human Science, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy

    Giacomo Stella

Authors
  1. Massimo Ciuffo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jane Myers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Massimo Ingrassia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Antonio Milanese
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Maria Venuti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ausilia Alquino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Alice Baradello
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Giacomo Stella
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Antonella Gagliano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Massimo Ciuffo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ciuffo, M., Myers, J., Ingrassia, M. et al. How fast can we read in the mind? Developmental trajectories of silent reading fluency. Read Writ 30, 1667–1686 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9744-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9744-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation