Abstract
Groundwater contamination throughout India is a global concern as it feeds more than a billion people. Of all the contaminants, fluoride (F) is one of the most widespread and well documented since its toxic nature pose serious threats to human health. In India, groundwater F concentrations have been extensively studied over the past decades. These studies have generally concluded that the groundwater F concentrations are typically higher than the drinking water standard for human health. Here, we present the occurrence, distribution, and sources of groundwater F in the Kanpur Nagar and Kanpur Dehat districts covering ~ 6000 km2 of the area in the central part of the Ganga Basin. The result revealed significant spatial variability in dissolved F concentration ranging between 0.2 and 5.2 mg/L (average 0.9 ± 0.7 mg/L, n = 172, 1 SD), which is beyond the drinking water guideline (0.5–1.5 mg/L) of the Indian Standards. We find that 31% of groundwater sampled have F content below the optimal requirement of 0.5–1.0 mg/L causing dental caries problems. The F levels only exceeded the safe drinking water limit of 1.5 mg/L in 8% of the groundwater sampled mostly in the urban regions. Fluoride distribution shows a closer resemblance with the spatial distribution pattern of electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solids demonstrate that F in the shallow alluvial aquifers is largely derived from geogenic sources. This is further confirmed by a strong positive correlation (r = 0.91, p < 0.05) observed between chloride-normalized concentration of F and the sum of geogenic elements (∑Li, Rb, Sr, Ba). We additionally performed health risk assessments, which revealed that children are most vulnerable to dental caries (commonly known as tooth decay) and dental fluorosis problems. As F concentrations show large spatial variability in the studied aquifer, we suggest that uniform application of a single de-fluoridation and fluoridation technology on an aquifer or sub-aquifer scale without a detailed well-designed groundwater F survey will have an adverse health impact on local residents as optimal level of F in drinking water may not be compromised.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Full data and supporting information are available as supplementary material.
References
Adimalla, N., Dhakate, R., Kasarla, A., & Taloor, A. K. (2020). Appraisal of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes in Central Telangana, India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 10, 100334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100334
Agarwal, M., Singh, M., & Hussain, J. (2019). Assessment of groundwater quality with special emphasis on nitrate contamination in parts of Gautam Budh Nagar district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Acta Geochimica, 38, 703–717. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11631-018-00311-z
Agnihotri, N., Pathak, V. N., Khatoon, N., & Rahman, M. (2014). Hydrochemical assessment and factor analysis of groundwater with special reference to fluoride in Kanpur Dehat, U.P., India. IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry, 7, 52–6. https://doi.org/10.9790/5736-07315256
Ali, S., Fakhri, Y., Golbini, M., Thakur, S. K., Alinejad, A., Parseh, I., Shekhar, S., & Bhattacharya, P. (2019). Concentration of fluoride in groundwater of India: A systematic review, meta-analysis and risk assessment. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 9, 100224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100224
Ali, S., Kumari, M., Gupta, S. K., Sinha, A., & Mishra, B. K. (2017). Investigation and mapping of fluoride-endemic areas and associated health risk—A case study of Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 23, 590–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2016.1255139
Ali, S., Shekhar, S., Bhattacharya, P., Verma, G., Chandrasekhar, T., & Chandrashekhar, A. K. (2018). Elevated fluoride in groundwater of Siwani Block, Western Haryana, India: A potential concern for sustainable water supplies for drinking and irrigation. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 7, 410–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2018.05.008
Ali, S., Shekhar, S., Chandrasekhar, T., Yadav, A. K., Arora, N. K., Kashyap, C. A., Bhattacharya, P., Rai, S. P., Pande, P., & Chandrasekharam, D. (2021). Influence of the water–sediment interaction on the major ions chemistry and fluoride pollution in groundwater of the Older Alluvial Plains of Delhi, India. Journal of Earth System Science, 130, 98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-021-01585-3
Ansari, J. A., & Umar, R. (2019). HydroResearch Evaluation of hydrogeochemical characteristics and groundwater quality in the quaternary aquifers of Unnao District, Uttar Pradesh, India. HydroResearch, 1, 36–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2019.01.001
APHA: American Public Health, 1998. AssociationStandard Methods for the Examination of the Water and Wastewater, 20th ed. USA.
Ayoob, S., & Gupta, A. K. (2006). Fluoride in drinking water: A review on the status and stress effects. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643380600678112
Batabyal, A. K., & Gupta, S. (2017). Fluoride-contaminated groundwater of Birbhum district, West Bengal, India: Interpretation of drinking and irrigation suitability and major geochemical processes using principal component analysis. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6041-0
Bhalla, A., Malik, S., & Sharma, S. (2015). Prevalence of dental fluorosis among school children residing in Kanpur city, Uttar Pradesh, India. European Journal of General Dentistry, 4, 59.
Bindal, S., & Singh, C. K. (2019). Predicting groundwater arsenic contamination: Regions at risk in highest populated state of India. Water Research, 159, 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.04.054
Boral, S., Sen, I. S., Tripathi, A., Sharma, B., & Dhar, S. (2020). Tracking dissolved trace and heavy metals in the Ganga river from source to sink: A baseline to judge future changes. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 21, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GC009203
Bose, P., & Sharma, A. (2002). Role of iron in controlling speciation and mobilization of arsenic in subsurface environment. Water Research, 36, 4916–4926. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00203-8
CGWB, 2010. Ground Water Quality in Shallow Aquifers of India, Central Gound Water Board Ministry of Water Resources Governmnet of India, Faridabad.
Chakraborti, D., Ghorai, S. K., Das, B., Pal, A., Nayak, B., & Shah, B. A. (2009). Arsenic exposure through groundwater to the rural and urban population in the Allahabad-Kanpur track in the upper Ganga plain. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 11, 1455. https://doi.org/10.1039/b906584a
Chakraborti, D., Rahman, M. M., Chatterjee, A., Das, D., Das, B., Nayak, B., Pal, A., Chowdhury, U. K., Ahmed, S., Biswas, B. K., Sengupta, M. K., Lodh, D., Samanta, G., Chakraborty, S., Roy, M. M., Dutta, R. N., Saha, K. C., Mukherjee, S. C., Pati, S., & Kar, P. B. (2016). Fate of over 480 million inhabitants living in arsenic and fluoride endemic Indian districts: Magnitude, health, socio-economic effects and mitigation approaches. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 38, 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.05.001
Chauhan, V. S., Yunus, M., & Sankararamakrishnan, N. (2012). Geochemistry and mobilization of arsenic in Shuklaganj area of Kanpur-Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184, 4889–4901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2310-5
CPCB, 2013. District Gound Water Brochure Kanpur Dehat Distruct, U.P. Kanpur.
CPCB, 2008. District Brochure of Kanpur Nagar District, U P. Kanpur.
Dutta, V., Fatima, N., & Kumar, N. (2019). Excessive fluoride in groundwater of Central Ganga Alluvial Plain: A case study of Fatehpur, North India. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 16, 7791–7798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-018-2145-5
Farooqi, A., Masuda, H., & Firdous, N. (2007). Toxic fluoride and arsenic contaminated groundwater in the Lahore and Kasur districts, Punjab, Pakistan and possible contaminant sources. Environmental Pollution, 145, 839–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.05.007
Fawell, J., Bailey, K., Chilton, J., Dahi, E., Fewtrell, L., Magara, Y., 2006. Flouride in Drinking-water: IWA publishing. IWA publishing.
Felsenfeld, A. J. (1991). A report of fluorosis in the United States secondary to drinking well water. JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association, 265, 486. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1991.03460040062030
He, S., & Wu, J. (2019). Hydrogeochemical characteristics, groundwater quality, and health risks from hexavalent chromium and nitrate in groundwater of huanhe formation in Wuqi County, Northwest China. Exposure and Health, 11, 125–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-018-0289-7
Hossain, M., Patra, P. K., Ghosh, B., Khatun, A., & Nayek, S. (2021). Sensitive assessment of groundwater-associated, multi-exposure health hazards in a fluoride-enriched region of West Bengal, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00942-x
ICMR, 2009. Nutrient requirements and recommended dietary allowances for Indians, a Report of the Expert, A Report of the Expert Group of the Indian Council of Medical ResearchExpert Group of the Indian Council of Medical Research.
Jain, C. K., Bandyopadhyay, A., & Bhadra, A. (2010). Assessment of ground water quality for drinking purpose, District Nainital, Uttarakhand, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 166, 663–676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-009-1031-5
Jha, P. K., & Tripathi, P. (2021). Arsenic and fluoride contamination in groundwater: A review of global scenarios with special reference to India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 13, 100576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2021.100576
Jha, S. K., Nayak, A. K., & Sharma, Y. K. (2010). Potential fluoride contamination in the drinking water of Marks Nagar, Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 32, 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-009-9277-y
Khan, M. U., & Rai, N. (2022). Arsenic and selected heavy metal enrichment and its health risk assessment in groundwater of the Haridwar district Uttarakhand India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 81(12). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-022-10453-2
Khan, I., Umar, R., & Izhar, S. (2022). Hydrogeochemical and health risk assessment in and around a Ramsar-designated wetland the Ganges River Basin India: Implications for natural and human interactions. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10154-0
Kim, S. H., Kim, K., Ko, K. S., Kim, Y., & Lee, K. S. (2012). Co-contamination of arsenic and fluoride in the groundwater of unconsolidated aquifers under reducing environments. Chemosphere, 87, 851–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.01.025
Kimambo, V., Bhattacharya, P., Mtalo, F., Mtamba, J., & Ahmad, A. (2019). Fluoride occurrence in groundwater systems at global scale and status of defluoridation—State of the art. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 9, 100223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100223
Kumar, M., Goswami, R., Patel, A. K., Srivastava, M., & Das, N. (2020). Scenario, perspectives and mechanism of arsenic and fluoride Co-occurrence in the groundwater: A review. Chemosphere, 249, 126126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126126
Kumar, S., Singh, R., Venkatesh, A. S., Udayabhanu, G., & Sahoo, P. R. (2019). Medical Geological assessment of fluoride contaminated groundwater in parts of Indo-Gangetic Alluvial plains. Science and Reports, 9, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52812-3
Lu, H. Y., Peng, T. R., & Liou, T. S. (2008). Identification of the origin of salinization in groundwater using multivariate statistical analysis and geochemical modeling: A case study of Kaohsiung, Southwest Taiwan. Environmental Geology, 55, 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0979-0
Luo, W., Gao, X., & Zhang, X. (2018). Geochemical processes controlling the groundwater chemistry and fluoride contamination in the yuncheng basin, China—an area with complex hydrogeochemical conditions. PLoS ONE, 13, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199082
Mandal, R., Das, A., Sudheer, A. K., Kumar, S., Verma, S., Gaddam, M., & Deshpande, R. D. (2021). Sources, controls, and probabilistic health risk assessment of fluoride contamination in groundwater from a semi-arid region in Gujarat, Western India: An isotope–hydrogeochemical perspective. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00894-2
Maurya, J., Pradhan, S. N., & Seema Ghosh, A. K. (2020). Evaluation of ground water quality and health risk assessment due to nitrate and fluoride in the Middle Indo-Gangetic plains of India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 27, 1349–1365. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1844559
Mohapatra, A. K., Sujathan, S., Ekamparam, A. S., & Singh, A. (2021). The role of manganese carbonate precipitation in controlling fluoride and uranium mobilization in groundwater. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 5(10), 2700–2714. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.1c00133
Mridha, D., Priyadarshni, P., Bhaskar, K., Gaurav, A., De, A., Das, A., Joardar, M., Chowdhury, N. R., & Roychowdhury, T. (2021). Fluoride exposure and its potential health risk assessment in drinking water and staple food in the population from fluoride endemic regions of Bihar, India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 13, 100558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2021.100558
Mukherjee, A., Saha, D., Harvey, C. F., Taylor, R. G., Ahmed, K. M., & Bhanja, S. N. (2015). Groundwater systems of the Indian Sub-Continent. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 4, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.03.005
Mukherjee, I., & Singh, U. K. (2018). Groundwater fluoride contamination, probable release, and containment mechanisms: A review on Indian context. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 40, 2259–2301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0096-x
Muralidharan, D., Nair, A., & Sathyanarayana, U. (2002). Fluoride in shallow aquifers in Rajgarh Tehsil of Churu District, Rajasthan–an arid environment. Current Science, 83, 699–702.
Narsimha, A., & Rajitha, S. (2018). Spatial distribution and seasonal variation in fluoride enrichment in groundwater and its associated human health risk assessment in Telangana State, South India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 24, 2119–2132. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1438176
Naz, A., Mishra, B. K., & Gupta, S. K. (2016). Human health risk assessment of chromium in drinking water: A case study of sukinda chromite mine, Odisha, India. Exposure and Health, 8, 253–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0199-5
Nizam, S., Dutta, S., Sen, I.S., 2021a. Geogenic controls on the high levels of uranium in alluvial aquifers of the Ganga Basin. figshare. Dataset. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.17032088.v8.
Nizam, S., & Sen, I. S. (2018). Effect of southwest monsoon withdrawal on mass loading and chemical characteristics of aerosols in an urban city over the Indo-Gangetic Basin. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 2, 347–355. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.7b00140
Nizam, S., Sen, I. S., Shukla, T., & Selby, D. (2021b). Melting of the Chhota Shigri Glacier, Western Himalaya, insensitive to anthropogenic emission residues: insights from geochemical evidence. Geophysical Research Letters, 48, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL092801
Nizam, S., Virk, H. S., & Sen, I. S. (2022). High levels of fluoride in groundwater from northern parts of Indo-Gangetic Plains reveals detrimental fluorosis health risks. Environmental Advances, 8, 100200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2022.100200
Omwene, P. I., Öncel, M. S., Çelen, M., & Kobya, M. (2019). Influence of arsenic and boron on the water quality index in mining stressed catchments of Emet and Orhaneli streams (Turkey). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7337-z
Pal, D. K., Bhattacharyya, T., Sinha, R., Srivastava, P., Dasgupta, A. S., Chandran, P., Ray, S. K., & Nimje, A. (2012). Clay minerals record from Late Quaternary drill cores of the Ganga Plains and their implications for provenance and climate change in the Himalayan foreland. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 356–357, 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2011.05.009
Patel, K. S., Sahu, B. L., Dahariya, N. S., Bhatia, A., Patel, R. K., Matini, L., Sracek, O., & Bhattacharya, P. (2017). Groundwater arsenic and fluoride in Rajnandgaon District, Chhattisgarh, northeastern India. Applied Water Science, 7, 1817–1826. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0355-2
Podgorski, J. E., Labhasetwar, P., Saha, D., & Berg, M. (2018). Prediction modeling and mapping of groundwater fluoride contamination throughout India. Environmental Science and Technology, 52, 9889–9898. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01679
Rahman, A., Mondal, N. C., & Tiwari, K. K. (2021). Anthropogenic nitrate in groundwater and its health risks in the view of background concentration in a semi arid area of Rajasthan India. Scientific Reports, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88600-1
Raju, N. J., Das, S., & Dey, K. (2009). Fluoride contamination in groundwaters of Sonbhadra District, Uttar Pradesh, India. Current Science, 96, 979–985.
Rao, N. S. (2009). Fluoride in groundwater, Varaha River Basin, Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 152, 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0295-5
Rashmi, S., & Somali, M. (2014). Fluorine content in water and prevalence of fluorosis in Kanpur city. Asian Journal of Dairy and Food Research, 33, 234. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-0563.2014.00609.5
Rasool, A., Farooqi, A., Xiao, T., Ali, W., Noor, S., Abiola, O., Ali, S., & Nasim, W. (2017). A review of global outlook on fluoride contamination in groundwater with prominence on the Pakistan current situation. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 40, 1265–1281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-017-0054-z
Sahu, P., Chandra, G., Pramod, K., Singh, K., Kumar, V., & Kumar, P. (2018). Multivariate statistical interpretation on seasonal variations of fluoride-contaminated groundwater quality of Lalganj Tehsil, Raebareli District (UP ), India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 77, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7658-1
Samal, A. K., Mishra, P. K., & Biswas, A. (2020). Assessment of origin and distribution of fluoride contamination in groundwater using an isotopic signature from a part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP), India. HydroResearch, 3, 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2020.05.001
Sankararamakrishnan, N., Sharma, A. K., & Iyengar, L. (2008). Contamination of nitrate and fluoride in ground water along the Ganges Alluvial Plain of Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 146, 375–382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-0085-5
Sen, I. S., Boral, S., Ranjan, S., & Tandon, S. K. (2018). Small but important: the role of small floodplain tributaries to river nutrient budgets. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry, 2, 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.7b00112
Sharma, C., Mahajan, A., & Kumar Garg, U. (2014). Fluoride and nitrate in groundwater of south-western Punjab, India—occurrence, distribution and statistical analysis. Desalination and Water Treatment, 57, 3928–3939. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2014.989415
Shukla, T., Sen, I. S., Boral, S., & Sharma, S. (2021). A time-series record during COVID-19 lockdown shows the high resilience of dissolved heavy metals in the Ganga River. Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 8, 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00982
Singh, U. V., Abhishek, A., Singh, K. P., Dhakate, R., & Singh, N. P. (2014). Groundwater quality appraisal and its hydrochemical characterization in Ghaziabad (a region of indo-gangetic plain), Uttar Pradesh, India. Applied Water Science, 4, 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-013-0137-7
Sinha, R., Bhattacharjee, P. S., Sangode, S. J., Gibling, M. R., Tandon, S. K., Jain, M., & Godfrey-Smith, D. (2007). Valley and interfluve sediments in the Southern Ganga plains, India: Exploring facies and magnetic signatures. Sedimentary Geology, 201, 386–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2007.07.004
Sinha, R., Kettanah, Y., Gibling, M. R., Tandon, S. K., Jain, M., Bhattacharjee, P. S., Dasgupta, A. S., & Ghazanfari, P. (2009). Craton-derived alluvium as a major sediment source in the Himalayan foreland Basin of India. Bulletin Geological Society of America, 121, 1596–1610. https://doi.org/10.1130/B26431.1
Sinha, R., Tandon, S.K., Gibling, M.R., Bhattacharjee, P.S., Dasgupta, A.S., 2005. Late_Quaternary_geology_and_alluvial_str 26, 223–240.
Suthar, S., Garg, V. K., Jangir, S., Kaur, S., Goswami, N., & Singh, S. (2008). Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of Northern Rajasthan, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 145, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-0011-x
Thapa, R., Gupta, S., Kaur, H., & Baski, R. (2019). Assessment of groundwater quality scenario in respect of fluoride and nitrate contamination in and around Gharbar village, Jharkhand, India. HydroResearch, 2, 60–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydres.2019.09.002
Tiwari, A. K., Singh, A. K., & Mahato, M. K. (2017). GIS based evaluation of fluoride contamination and assessment of fluoride exposure dose in groundwater of a district in Uttar Pradesh, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 23, 56–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2016.1220824
USEPA. (1999). Guidance for performing aggregate exposure and risk assessments. Office of Pesticide Programs.
USEPA, 1993. Reference Dose (RfD): Description and Use in Health Risk Assessments. https://www.epa.gov/iris/reference-dose-rfd-description-and-use-health-risk-assessments.
WHO, 2013. World health statistics, SBN 978 92 4 156458 8.
Yadav, K. K., Kumar, S., Pham, Q. B., Gupta, N., Rezania, S., Kamyab, H., Yadav, S., Vymazal, J., Kumar, V., Tri, D. Q., Talaiekhozani, A., Prasad, S., Reece, L. M., Singh, N., Maurya, P. K., & Cho, J. (2019). Fluoride contamination, health problems and remediation methods in Asian groundwater: A comprehensive review. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 182, 109362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.06.045
Acknowledgements
This project was financially supported by Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, Climate Change Program (SPLICE) Grant DST/CCP/Aerosol/86/2017(C) and Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB) Grant (EMR/2015/000439) to I.S.S. S.N. is thankful to Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IITK) for PhD scholarship. T.A. and S.D. acknowledge IITK for M.Tech fellowship support. We thank IITK for providing access to instrumentation and support. We are thankful to Akshay from IIT Kanpur for field sampling support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
SN provided conceptualization, writing—original draft, review and edit; TA and SD were involved in data curation, methodology and formal analysis; IS did funding acquisition, review and edit. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to participate
The participants have given consent to the submission and publication of the present study.
Consent to publish
The participant has consented to the submission of the case report to the journal.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nizam, S., Acharya, T., Dutta, S. et al. Occurrence, sources, and spatial distribution of fluoride in the Ganga alluvial aquifer, India. Environ Geochem Health 45, 1975–1989 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01319-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01319-4