Abstract
This study provides a discussion using a database of historic masonry bell towers struck by past Italian earthquakes, which is the result of an extensive literature review on post-earthquake reconnaissance reports and scientific publications. The observed damage is analysed to give an insight into the seismic behaviour and vulnerability of this peculiar building typology. To this end, a macro-scale approach is adopted, two distinct damage mechanisms are identified and evaluated, and a damage index for each tower is computed. This enables to develop the damage probability matrices, providing the frequency of damage occurrence. Moreover, vulnerability and fragility curves are derived to help the prediction of future possible damage scenarios. The developed vulnerability and fragility curves are compared with the mean damage observed in the samples included in the database. This comparison allowed to check the robustness of rapid procedures today available in the field of seismic risk assessment for the specific case of historic masonry towers.
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09 April 2024
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-024-01906-z
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Funding
This work was partly financed by FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC) under the R&D Unit Institute for Sustainability and Innovation in Structural Engineering (ISISE), under reference https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/04029/2020, and under the Associate Laboratory Advance Production and Intelligent Systems (ARISE), under reference LA/P/0112/2020. This work was also financed by national funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, under grant agreement SFRH/BD/07658/2020 attributed to the 1st author.
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Appendix
Appendix
The entire dataset is reported in the following appendix, highlighting the name of the tower, the location, the earthquake events, the MCS intensity, the damage levels for both mechanisms (MecA and MecB), and the source.
No | Church/tower name | Lat | Long | IMCS | d1 | d2 | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 Event: the 1976 Friuli Earthquake | |||||||
1 | Church in Arbaa | 46.163 | 12.812 | 8.5 | 4 | 0 | Curti et al. (2008) |
2 | Ognissanti Church | 46.178 | 13.107 | 9.0 | 2 | 5 | Curti et al. (2008) |
3 | Santa Maria Assunta Cathedral | 46.276 | 13.142 | 9.5 | 5 | 5 | Curti et al. (2008) |
4 | SS. Pietro and Paolo Church | 46.184 | 13.071 | 9.0 | 5 | 5 | Curti et al. (2008) |
5 | Santa Elena Imperatrice Churcha | 46.184 | 13.071 | 9.0 | 3 | 2 | Curti et al. (2008) |
6 | Santo Spirito Church | 46.405 | 13.189 | 9.0 | 3 | 3 | Curti et al. (2008) |
7 | Santo Stefano Churcha,b | 46.197 | 13.263 | 8.5 | 4 | 5 | Curti et al. (2008) |
8 | Santo Stefano Church | 46.168 | 12.917 | 8.5 | 5 | 5 | Curti et al. (2008) |
9 | San Maria Church del Monte Castellanob | 46.437 | 12.862 | 8.0 | 3 | 4 | Curti et al. (2008) |
10 | Sant’Antonio Abate Church | 46.239 | 13.205 | 8.0 | 2 | 1 | Curti et al. (2008) |
11 | San Bartolomeo Apostolo Church | 46.318 | 13.050 | 8.5 | 3 | 3 | Curti et al. (2008) |
12 | San Michele Arcangelo Churcha | 46.287 | 13.092 | 8.5 | 3 | 0 | Curti et al. (2008) |
13 | San Daniele Church | 46.365 | 13.041 | 8.5 | 1 | 2 | Curti et al. (2008) |
14 | San Lorenzo Church | 46.224 | 12.968 | 9.5 | 2 | 1 | Curti et al. (2008) |
15 | San Valentino Church | 46.349 | 13.067 | 7.5 | 1 | 0 | Curti et al. (2008) |
16 | San Stefano Church | 46.351 | 13.062 | 8.5 | 4 | 5 | Curti et al. (2008) |
17 | Santa Giuliana Church | 46.222 | 13.005 | 8.5 | Curti et al. (2008) | ||
18 | San Martino Church | 46.391 | 13.218 | 9.0 | 4 | 0 | Curti et al. (2008) |
19 | Santa Maria Maddalena Church | 46.405 | 12.943 | 8.0 | Curti et al. (2008) | ||
20 | Church of the Beata Vergine ad Melotum | 46.224 | 13.124 | 9.5 | Curti et al. (2008) | ||
21 | Santo Spirito Church | 46.299 | 13.120 | 8.5 | 5 | 5 | Curti et al. (2008) |
22 | San Nicolò Church | 46.223 | 12.974 | 9.5 | 3 | 3 | Curti et al. (2008) |
23 | SS. Gervasio and Protasio Church | 46.200 | 13.275 | 8.5 | 3 | 4 | Curti et al. (2008) |
24 | San Leonardo Abate Church | 46.119 | 13.535 | 6.5 | Curti et al. (2008) | ||
25 | Santa Maria Ad Nives Church | 46.259 | 13.077 | 9.5 | Curti et al. (2008) | ||
26 | San Marco Church | 46.140 | 12.913 | 7.5 | 2 | 4 | Curti et al. (2008) |
27 | SS. Trinitàc | 46.274 | 13.303 | 8.5 | 4 | Curti et al. (2008) | |
28 | Church in Spilimbergo | 46.132 | 12.902 | 7.5 | Curti et al. (2008) | ||
29 | San Biagio Church | 46.215 | 13.206 | 8.0 | Curti et al. (2008) | ||
30 | San Pietro Apostolo | 46.216 | 13.222 | 8.5 | 3 | 1 | Curti et al. (2008) |
31 | Church of Vito D’Asio | 46.229 | 12.930 | 9.0 | Curti et al. (2008) | ||
2 Event: the 1997 Umbria–Marche Earthquake | |||||||
32 | San Salvatore Churchc | 42.983 | 12.930 | 7.5 | 4 | 4 | Sferrazza Papa and Silva (2018) |
33 | Basilica of San Francescoc | 43.075 | 12.605 | 6.5 | 0 | 2 | Spence et al. (1998) |
34 | Basilica of Santa Chiarac | 43.069 | 12.617 | 6.5 | 0 | 0 | Spence et al. (1998) |
35 | San Rufino Cathedralc | 43.071 | 12.618 | 6.5 | 0 | 0 | Spence et al. (1998) |
36 | Santa Maria Maggiore Churchc | 43.070 | 12.614 | 6.5 | 0 | 1 | Spence et al. (1998) |
37 | Civic Towerc | 43.110 | 12.790 | 7.5 | 5 | 5 | Spence et al. (1998) |
38 | Santa Maria Assunta Cathedralc | 43.110 | 12.791 | 7.5 | 2 | 1 | Spence et al. (1998) |
39 | San Filippo Churchc | 43.111 | 12.789 | 7.5 | 2 | 0 | Spence et al. (1998) |
3 Event: the 2002 Molise Earthquake | |||||||
40 | Church (S. Pietro in Vincoli Church)c | 41.704 | 14.730 | 7.0 | 3 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
41 | San Giacomo Churchc | 41.711 | 14.990 | 7.0 | 0 | 5 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
42 | Sant’Antonio di Padova Churchc | 41.712 | 14.992 | 7.0 | 3 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
43 | Santa Maria Assunta Churchc | 41.689 | 14.807 | 7.0 | 0 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
44 | Sant’Alfonso dei Liguori Monasteryc | 41.663 | 14.968 | 6.5 | 3 | 3 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
45 | Sacro Cuore di Gesù Churchc | 41.681 | 14.722 | 5.5 | 1 | 5 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
46 | San Michele Arcangelo Churchc | 41.632 | 14.765 | 5.5 | 0 | 3 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
47 | Madonna Addolorata Churchc | 41.703 | 14.731 | 7.0 | 0 | 5 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
48 | San Giovanni Battista Churchc | 41.663 | 14.973 | 6.5 | 2 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
49 | S. Maria Assunta Cathedralc | 41.802 | 14.793 | 6.0 | 0 | 1 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
50 | S. Francesco d’Assisi Churchc | 41.677 | 14.621 | 5.5 | 1 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
51 | Santa Maria Maggiore Churchc | 41.674 | 14.623 | 5.5 | 1 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
52 | Santa Maria Assunta Churchc | 41.763 | 14.733 | 5.5 | 2 | 3 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
53 | San Nicola di Mira Churchc | 41.593 | 14.911 | 5.5 | 0 | 2 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
54 | Santa Maria Assunta Churchc | 41.759 | 14.932 | 6.0 | 2 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
55 | San Giuliano Churchc | 41.684 | 14.964 | 8.5 | 3 | 4 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
56 | Sant’Elia Profeta Churchc | 41.621 | 14.874 | 5.5 | 2 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
57 | Santa Maria degli Angeli Churchc | 41.750 | 15.004 | 6.0 | 1 | 0 | Cifani et al. (2005) |
4 Event: the 2009 L’Aquila Earthquake | |||||||
58 | San Silvestro Churchc | 42.354 | 13.397 | 8.5 | 3 | 1 | Brandonisio et al. (2013) |
59 | San Pietro di Coppito Churchc | 42.353 | 13.396 | 8.5 | 4 | 5 | Brandonisio et al. (2013) |
60 | Margherita Palacec | 42.351 | 13.398 | 8.5 | 3 | 0 | Lorenzoni et al. (2012) |
61 | Santa Gemma Church | 42.081 | 13.773 | 7.0 | 2 | 1 | Criber et al. (2015) |
62 | Santa Maria di Paganicac | 42.353 | 13.400 | 8.5 | 5 | 5 | Augenti and Parisi (2010) |
63 | San Bernardino da Siena Basilicac | 42.350 | 13.402 | 8.5 | 4 | 5 | Augenti and Parisi (2010) |
5 Event: the 2012 Emilia Earthquake | |||||||
64 | San Michele Arcangelo Church | 44.765 | 11.485 | 5.5 | 3 | NaN | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
65 | San Paolo Cathedral | 44.826 | 11.461 | 6.0 | 0 | 0 | Paupério et al. (2012) |
66 | Sant’Agostino Church | 44.792 | 11.386 | 6.0 | 3 | 3 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
67 | San Martino Church | 44.808 | 11.344 | 5.5 | 4 | 4 | Ferrari (2020) |
68 | Beata Vergine del Salice Church | 44.815 | 11.307 | 5.5 | 1 | 0 | Decanini et al. (2012) |
69 | Sant’Anna Church | 44.828 | 11.330 | 5.0 | 4 | 0 | Ferrari (2020) |
70 | Santa Maria Maggiore Church | 44.713 | 11.307 | 5.5 | 2 | 0 | Ferrari (2020) |
71 | Duomo of SS Filippo & Giacomo | 44.832 | 11.296 | 6.5 | Decanini et al. (2012) | ||
72 | Annunziata Church | 44.830 | 11.295 | 6.5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | ||
73 | San Geminiano Vescovo Church | 44.852 | 11.212 | 5.5 | 1 | 0 | Paupério et al. (2012) |
74 | San Lorenzo Churchb | 44.838 | 11.363 | 6.5 | 3 | 1 | Ferrari (2020) |
75 | Visitazione Maria Vergine Church | 44.833 | 11.319 | 5.5 | 4 | 0 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
76 | San Felice Church | 44.839 | 11.140 | 7.0 | 5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
77 | Natività of the S. Maria Santissima Church | 44.841 | 11.169 | 6.0 | 3 | 0 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
78 | San Biagio Churchb | 44.862 | 11.118 | 7.0 | 5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
79 | San Francesco Church | 44.888 | 11.068 | 7.0 | 5 | 5 | Paupério et al. (2012) |
80 | San Sacramento Church | 44.886 | 11.067 | 7.0 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | ||
81 | Santa Maria Maggiore Church | 44.886 | 11.066 | 7.0 | 4 | 3 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
82 | Beata Vergine della Porta Church | 44.889 | 11.066 | 7.0 | 3 | 4 | Ferrari (2020) |
83 | San Leonardo Limosino Church | 44.875 | 11.129 | 6.5 | 5 | 5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
84 | Madonna della Neve Church | 44.923 | 11.096 | 5.5 | 2 | 2 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
85 | Beata Vergine Maria Church | 44.959 | 11.088 | 5.5 | 1 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
86 | San Luca Evangelista Churchb | 44.863 | 11.077 | 5.5 | 4 | 5 | Ferrari (2020) |
87 | SS Apostoli Giacomo and Filippo Church | 44.861 | 11.058 | 5.5 | 4 | 3 | Paupério et al. (2012) |
88 | San Bartolomeo Church | 44.834 | 11.061 | 6.0 | 5 | 5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
89 | Church in Montalbanoc | 44.849 | 11.055 | 5.5 | 4 | 3 | Paupério et al. (2012) |
90 | Sant’Egidio Abate Church | 44.837 | 11.031 | 7.0 | 4 | 4 | Ferrari (2020) |
91 | San Giovanni Battista Church | 44.859 | 11.000 | 5.5 | 5 | 5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
92 | San Prospero Church | 44.790 | 11.017 | 5.0 | 3 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
93 | San Michele Arcangelo Church | 44.890 | 10.903 | 7.0 | 4 | 2 | Ferrari 2020 |
94 | Santa Caterina d’Alessandria Church | 44.841 | 10.956 | 7.5 | 3 | 3 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
95 | San Possidonio Church | 44.892 | 10.996 | 6.0 | 5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
96 | Conversione San Paolo Church | 44.913 | 10.982 | 7.0 | 4 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
97 | San Giovanni Battista Churchb | 44.909 | 10.983 | 7.0 | 3 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
98 | Santa Caterina Churchb | 44.925 | 10.979 | 7.0 | 5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
99 | Santa Maria Bianca Church | 44.943 | 11.005 | 5.5 | 4 | 5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) |
100 | San Pietro Apostolo Church | 44.923 | 11.037 | 5.5 | 4 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
101 | San Tommaso Apostolo Church | 44.944 | 10.857 | 6.0 | 2 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | |
102 | San Giacomo Maggiore Church | 44.971 | 11.034 | 5.5 | Sorrentino et al. (2014) | ||
103 | Church in Bondenoc | 44.887 | 11.414 | 5.5 | 3 | 2 | Paupério et al. (2012) |
104 | Sacro Cuore Churchc | 44.885 | 11.417 | 5.5 | 0 | 2 | Paupério et al. (2012) |
105 | San Benedetto Abate Churchc | 44.951 | 10.824 | 5.0 | 3 | 4 | Valente et al. (2017) |
106 | San Fiorentino Martire Churchc | 45.030 | 11.010 | 5.0 | 3 | 3 | Valente et al. (2017) |
107 | Santa. Maria Assunta Churchc | 44.984 | 11.351 | 5.0 | 3 | 3 | Valente et al. (2017) |
108 | Clock Towerc | 44.832 | 11.294 | 6.5 | 5 | 5 | Acito et al. (2016) |
109 | Auditorium Ex Church of S. Lorenzo | 44.728 | 11.292 | 6.0 | 2 | 4 | Ferrari (2020) |
110 | San Filippo Neri Church | 44.726 | 11.289 | 6.0 | 2 | 0 | Ferrari (2020) |
111 | San Michele Arcangelo Church | 44.772 | 11.075 | 5.0 | 4 | 3 | Ferrari (2020) |
112 | Oratorio San Rocco | 44.772 | 11.100 | 5.0 | 4 | 2 | Ferrari (2020) |
113 | San Nicolò da Bari Church | 44.728 | 11.043 | 5.0 | 0 | 2 | Ferrari (2020) |
114 | Beata Vergine del Rosario Church | 44.834 | 11.294 | 6.5 | 4 | 2 | Ferrari (2020) |
115 | San Bartolomeo Church | 44.831 | 11.296 | 6.5 | 1 | 1 | Ferrari (2020) |
116 | SS. Senesio and Teopompo Martiri Church | 44.848 | 11.071 | 5.5 | 3 | 4 | Ferrari (2020) |
117 | Santa Maria Annunziata Church | 44.802 | 10.695 | 6.5 | 0 | 0 | Ferrari (2020) |
118 | Santa Maria Assunta Church | 44.918 | 10.807 | 6.5 | 2 | 4 | Ferrari (2020) |
6 Event: the 2016 Central Italy Earthquake | |||||||
119 | Sant’Agostino Churchc | 42.629 | 13.291 | 10.5 | 2 | 3 | Acito et al. (2021) |
120 | Civic Towerc | 42.629 | 13.289 | 10.5 | 0 | 3 | Jain et al. (2020) |
121 | San Salvatore Churchc | 42.983 | 12.930 | 5.0 | 4 | 4 | Sferrazza Papa and Silva (2018) |
122 | San Michele Arcangelo Churchb,c | 43.165 | 13.082 | 5.0 | 2 | 5 | De Matteis and Zizi (2019) |
123 | Santa Maria del Rosario Churchb,c | 43.100 | 13.108 | 5.0 | 4 | 2 | De Matteis and Zizi (2019) |
124 | Ex Church of San Carloc | 43.132 | 13.065 | 5.0 | 5 | 5 | De Matteis and Zizi (2019) |
125 | Collegiata di Santa Mariac | 42.931 | 13.087 | 5.5 | 3 | 2 | Giordano et al. (2019) |
126 | San Francesco Churchc | 42.943 | 13.343 | 5.5 | 2 | 0 | Clementi et al. (2020) |
127 | San Francesco Churchc | 42.727 | 13.687 | 5.0 | 3 | 0 | Ferracuti et al. (2022) |
128 | San Savino Churchc | 43.067 | 13.338 | 6.0 | 3 | 4 | Ferracuti et al. (2022) |
129 | San Massimo Oratorioc | 42.677 | 13.288 | 6.0 | 0 | 4 | Ferracuti et al. (2022) |
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Testa, F., Barontini, A., Chieffo, N. et al. Observed damage and simplified risk assessment of Italian masonry bell towers struck by past seismic events. Bull Earthquake Eng 22, 3353–3385 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-024-01878-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-024-01878-0