Abstract
Interactions between insects and fungi are widespread, and important mediators of these interactions are fungal chemicals that can therefore be considered as allelochemicals. Numerous studies suggest that fungal chemicals can affect insects in many different ways. Here, we apply the terminology established by insect-plant ecologists for categorizing the effect of fungal allelochemicals on insects and for evaluating the application potential of these chemicals in insect pest management. Our literature survey shows that fungal volatile and non-volatile chemicals have an enormous potential to influence insect behavior and fitness. Many of them still remain to be discovered, but some recent examples of repellents and toxins could open up new ways for developing safe insect control strategies. However, we also identified shortcomings in our understanding of the chemical ecology of insect-fungus interactions and the way they have been investigated. In particular, the mode-of-action of fungal allelochemicals has often not been appropriately designated or examined, and the way in which induction by insects affects fungal chemical diversity is poorly understood. This review should raise awareness that in-depth ecological studies of insect-fungus interactions can reveal novel allelochemicals of particular benefit for the development of innovative insect pest management strategies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbas HK, Mulrooney JE (1994) Effect of some phytopathogenic fungi and their metabolites on growth of Heliothis virescens (F.) and its host plants. Biocontrol Sci Tech 4:77–87. doi:10.1080/09583159409355315
Abdou RF, Megalla SE, Azab SG (1984) Mutagenic effects of aflatoxin B-1 and G-1 on the Egyptian cotton leaf-worm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.). Mycopathologia 88:23–26. doi:10.1007/BF00439290
Andersson MN, Larsson MC, Schlyter F (2009) Specificity and redundancy in the olfactory system of the bark beetle Ips typographus: single-cell responses to ecologically relevant odors. J Insect Physiol 55:556–567. doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2009.01.018
Andreadis SS, Witzgall P, Becher PG (2015) Survey of arthropod assemblages responding to live yeasts in an organic apple orchard. Front Ecol Evol. doi:10.3389/fevo.2015.00121
Anke H (2010) Insecticidal and nematicidal metabolites from fungi. In: Esser K, Hofrichter M (eds) The Mycota X. Industrial applications (2nd edition). Springer, pp 151–163. doi:10.1007/978–3–642-11458-8_7
Anke H, Sterner O (2002) Insecticidal and nematicidal metabolites from fungi. In: Osiewacz HD (ed) The Mycota X. Industrial applications. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 109–127. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-10378-4_6
Anyaogu DC, Mortensen UH (2015) Heterologous production of fungal secondary metabolites in Aspergilli. Front Microbiol 6:77. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00077
Azeem M, Rajarao GK, Terenius O, Nordlander G, Nordenhem H, Nagahama K, Norin E, Borg-Karlson AK (2015a) A fungal metabolite masks the host plant odor for the pine weevil (Hylobius abietis). Fungal Ecol 13:103–111. doi:10.1016/j.funeco.2014.08.009
Azeem M, Terenius O, Rajarao GK, Nagahama K, Nordenhem H, Nordlander G, Borg-Karlson A-K (2015b) Chemodiversity and biodiversity of fungi associated with the pine weevil Hylobius abietis. Fungal Biol 119:738–746. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2015.04.008
Azeem M, Rajarao GK, Nordenhem H, Nordlander G, Borg-Karlson AK (2013) Penicillium expansum volatiles reduce pine weevil attraction to host plants. J Chem Ecol 39:120–128. doi:10.1007/s10886-012-0232-5
Becher PG, Bengtsson M, Hansson BS, Witzgall P (2010) Flying the fly: long-range flight behavior of Drosophila melanogaster to attractive odors. J Chem Ecol 36:599–607. doi:10.1007/s10886-010-9794-2
Beck JJ, Higbee BS (2015) Plant- or fungal-produced conophthorin as an important component of host plant volatile-based attractants for agricultural lepidopteran insect pests. In: Maienfisch P, Stevenson TM (eds.) Discovery and synthesis of crop protection products. ACS symposium series 1204, Oxford University Press, pp 111–127. doi:10.1021/bk-2015-1204.ch009
Beck JJ, Higbee BS, Light DM, Gee WS, Merrill GB, Hayashi JM (2012) Hull split and damaged almond volatiles attract male and female navel orangeworm moths. J Agric Food Chem 60:8090–8096. doi:10.1021/jf302658v
Brandhorst T, Dowd PF, Kenealy WR (1996) The ribosome-inactivating protein restrictocin deters insect feeding on Aspergillus restrictus. Microbiology 142:1551–1556. doi:10.1099/13500872-142-6-1551
Caballero Ortiz S, Trienens M, Rohlfs M (2013) Induced fungal resistance to insect grazing: reciprocal fitness consequences and fungal gene expression in the Drosophila–Aspergillus model system. PLoS One 8(8):e74951. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074951
Calvo AM, Cary JW (2015) Association of fungal secondary metabolism and sclerotial biology. Front Microbiol 6:62. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00062
Cary JW, Harris-Coward PY, Ehrlich KC, Di Mavungu JD, Malysheva SV, De Saeger S, Dowd PF, Shantappa S, Martens SL, Calvo AM (2014) Functional characterization of a veA-dependent polyketide synthase gene in Aspergillus flavus necessary for the synthesis of asparasone, a sclerotium-specific pigment. Fungal Genet Biol 64:25–35. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2014.01.001
Casida JE, Durkin KA (2013) Neuroactive insecticides: targets, selectivity, resistance, and secondary effects. Annu Rev Entomol 58:99–117. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153645
Castillo M-A, Moya P, Cantín A, Miranda MA, Primo J, Hernández E, Primo-Yúfera E (1999) Insecticidal, anti-juvenile hormone, and fungicidal activities of organic extracts from different Penicillium species and their isolated active components. J Agric Food Chem 47:2120–2124. doi:10.1021/jf981010a
Cloyd RA, Marley KA, Larson RA, Dickinson A, Arieli B (2011) Repellency of naturally occurring volatile alcohols to fungus gnat Bradysia sp. nr. coprophila (Diptera: Sciaridae) adults under laboratory conditions. J Econ Entomol 104:1633–1639. doi:10.1603/EC11066
Cook SM, Khan ZR, Pickett JA (2007) The use of push-pull strategies in integrated pest management. Annu Rev Entomol 52:375–400. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407
Daisy BH, Strobel GA, Castillo U, Ezra D, Sears J, Weaver DK, Runyon JB (2002) Naphthalene, an insect repellent, is produced by Muscodor vitigenus, a novel endophytic fungus. Microbiology 148:3737–3741. doi:10.1099/00221287-148-11-3737
Davis TS, Landolt PJ (2013) A survey of insect assemblages responding to volatiles from a ubiquitous fungus in an agricultural landscape. J Chem Ecol 39:860–868. doi:10.1007/s10886-013-0278-z
Davis TS, Crippen TL, Hofstetter RW, Tomberlin JK (2013) Microbial volatile emissions as insect semiochemicals. J Chem Ecol 39:840–859. doi:10.1007/s10886-013-0306-z
Dethier VG, Browne BL, Smith CN (1960) The designation of chemicals in terms of the responses they elicit from insects. J Econ Entomol 53:134–136. doi:10.1093/jee/53.1.134
Döll K, Chatterjee S, Scheu S, Karlovsky P, Rohlfs M (2013) Fungal metabolic plasticity and sexual development mediate induced resistance to arthropod fungivory. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 280:20131219. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.1219
Dowd PF (1988a) Synergism of aflatoxin B1 toxicity with the co-occurring fungal metabolite kojic acid to two caterpillars. Entomol Exp Appl 47:69–71. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.1988.tb02283.x
Dowd PF (1988b) Toxicological and biochemical interactions of the fungal metabolites fusaric acid and kojic acid with xenobiotics in Heliothis zea (F.) and Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith). Pestic Biochem Physiol 32:123–134. doi:10.1016/0048-3575(88)90005-3
Drilling K, Dettner K (2009) Electrophysiological responses of four fungivorous coleoptera to volatiles of Trametes versicolor: implications for host selection. Chemoecology 19:109–115. doi:10.1007/s00049-009-0015-9
Fleming A (1929) On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. Br J Exp Pathol 10:226–236
Foster SP, Harris MO (1997) Behavioral manipulation methods for insect pest-management. Annu Rev Entomol 42:123–146. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.42.1.123
Frisvad JC, Larsen TO (2016) Extrolites of Aspergillus fumigatus and other pathogenic species in Aspergillus section Fumigati. Front Microbiol. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.01485
Fujita T, Makishima D, Akiyama K, Hayashi H (2002) New convulsive compounds, brasiliamides A and B, from Penicillium brasilianum Batista JV-379. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 66:1697–1705. doi:10.1271/bbb.66.1697
Furutani S, Nakatani Y, Miura Y, Ihara M, Kai K, Hayashi H, Matsuda K (2014) GluCl a target of indole alkaloid okaramines: a 25 year enigma solved. Sci Rep 4:6190. doi:10.1038/srep06190
Gareis M, Gareis E-M (2007) Guttation droplets of Penicillium nordicum and Penicillium verrucosum contain high concentrations of the mycotoxins ochratoxin A and B. Mycopathologia 163:207–214. doi:10.1007/s11046-007-9003-1
Gareis M, Gottschalk C (2014) Stachybotrys spp. and the guttation phenomenon. Mycotoxin Res 30:151–159. doi:10.1007/s12550-014-0193-3
Gloer JB (1995) Antiisectan natural products from fungal sclerotia. Acc Chem Res 28:343–350. doi:10.1021/ar00056a004
Gunst K, Chinnici JP, Llewellyn GC (1982) Effects of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, and sterigmatocystin on viability, rates of development, and body length in two strains of Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera). J Invertebr Pathol 39:388–394. doi:10.1016/0022-2011(82)90064-7
Günther CS, Goddard MR, Newcomb RD, Buser CC (2015) The context of chemical communication driving a mutualism. J Chem Ecol 41:929–936. doi:10.1007/s10886-015-0629-z
Hayashi H (2015) Frontier studies on highly selective bio-regulators useful for environmentally benign agricultural production. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 79:877–887. doi:10.1080/09168451.2015.1015954
Herrera JM, Pizzolitto RP, Zunino MP, Dambolena JS, Zygadlo JA (2015) Effect of fungal volatile organic compounds on a fungus and an insect that damage stored maize. J Stored Prod Res 62:74–80. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2015.04.006
Hirata K, Kataoka S, Furutani S, Hayashi H, Matsuda K (2011) A fungal metabolite asperparaline a strongly and selectively blocks insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: the first report on the mode of action. PLoS One 6:e18354. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018354
Holighaus G, Weissbecker B, von Fragstein M, Schütz S (2014) Ubiquitous eight-carbon volatiles of fungi are infochemicals for a specialist fungivore. Chemoecology 24:57–66. doi:10.1007/s00049-014-0151-8
Inamdar AA, Hossain MM, Bernstein AI, Miller GW, Richardson JR, Bennett JW (2013) Fungal-derived semiochemical 1-octen-3-ol disrupts dopamine packaging and causes neurodegeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:19561–19566. doi:10.1073/pnas.1318830110
Isman MB (2006) Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and repellents in modern agriculture and and increasingly regulated world. Annu Rev Entomol 51:45–66. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151146
Jaramillo J, Torto B, Mwenda D, Troeger A, Borgemeister C, Poehling H-M, Francke W (2013) Coffee berry borer joins bark beetles in coffee klatch. PLoS One 8:e74277. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074277
Johne AB, Weissbecker B, Schütz S (2006) Volatile emissions from Aesculus hippocastanum induced by mining of larval stages of Cameraria ohridella influence oviposition by conspecific females. J Chem Ecol 32:2303–2319. doi:10.1007/s10886-006-9146-4
Kataoka S, Furutani S, Hirata K, Hayashi H, Matsuda K (2011) Three Austin family compounds from Penicillium brasilianum exhibit selective blocking action on cockroach nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Neurotoxicology 32:123–129. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2010.10.003
Kempken F, Rohlfs M (2010) Fungal secondary metabolite biosynthesis—a chemical defence strategy against antagonistic animals? Fungal Ecol 3:107–114. doi:10.1016/j.funeco.2009.08.001
Knolhoff LM, Heckel DG (2014) Behavioral assays for studies of host plant choice and adaptation in herbivorous insects. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 59:263–278. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-161945
Kuo Y-H, Kai K, Akiyama K, Hayashi H (2012) Novel bioactive peptides, PF1171F and PF1171G, from unidentified ascomycete OK-128. Tetrahedron Lett 53:429–431. doi:10.1016/j.tetlet.2011.11.068
Lam K, Tsang M, Labrie A, Gries R, Gries G (2010) Semiochemical-mediated oviposition avoidance by female house flies, Musca domestica, on animal feces colonized with harmful fungi. J Chem Ecol 36:141–147. doi:10.1007/s10886-010-9741-2
Melone PD, Chinnici JP (1986) Selection for increased resistance to aflatoxin B1 toxicity in Drosophila melanogaster. J Invertebr Pathol 48:60–65. doi:10.1016/0022-2011(86)90143-6
Nesbitt BF, O’Kelly J, Sargeant K, Sheridan A (1962) Aspergillus flavus and Turkey X disease: toxic metabolites of Aspergillus flavus. Nature 195:1062–1063. doi:10.1038/1951062a0
Nielsen MT, Klejnstrup M, Rohlfs M, Anyaogu DC, Nielsen JB, Gotfredsen CH, Andersen MR, Hansen BG, Mortensen UH, Larsen TO (2013) Aspergillus nidulans synthesize insect juvenile hormones upon expression of a heterologous regulatory protein and in response to grazing by Drosophila melanogaster larvae. PLoS One 8(8):e73369. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073369
Nordlund D (1981) Semiochemicals: a review of the terminology. In: Nordlund DA, Jones RL, Lewis WJ (eds) Semiochemicals—their role in pest control. Wiley, New York, pp. 13–23
Obana H, Kumeda Y, Nishimune T, Usami Y (1994) Direct detection using the Drosophila DNA-repair test and isolation of a DNA-damaging mycotoxin, 5,6-dihydropenicillic acid, in fungal culture. Food Chem Toxicol 32:37–43. doi:10.1016/0278-6915(84)90034-6
Paterson RRM, Simmonds MSJ, Blaney WM (1987) Mycopesticidal effects of characterized extracts of Penicillium isolates and purified secondary metabolites (including mycotoxins) on Drosophila melanogaster and Spodoptora littoralis. J Invertebr Pathol 50:124–133. doi:10.1016/0022-2011(87)90112-1
Petersen LM, Frisvad JC, Knudsen PB, Rohlfs M, Gotfredsen CH, Larsen TO (2015) Induced sclerotium formation exposes new bioactive metabolites from Aspergillus sclerotiicarbonarius. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 68:603–608. doi:10.1038/ja.2015.40
Pfeil RM, Mumma RO (1993) Bioassay for evaluating attraction of the phorid fly, Megaselia halterata to compost colonized by the commercial mushroom, Agaricus bisporus and to 1-octen-3-ol and 3-octanone. Entomol Exp Appl 69:137–144. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.1993.tb01736.x
Pureswaran DS, Borden JH (2004) New repellent semiochemicals for three species of Dendroctonus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Chemoecology 14:67–75. doi:10.1007/s00049-003-0260-2
Ranger CM, Gorzlancyk AM, Addesso KM, Oliver JB, Reding ME, Schultz PB, Held DW (2014) Conophthorin enhances the electroantennogram and field behavioural response of Xylosandrus germanus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) to ethanol. Agric For Entomol 16:327–334. doi:10.1111/afe.12062
Rhoades DF (1979) Evolution of plant chemical defense against herbivores. In: Rosenthal GA, Janzen DH (eds) Herbivores—their interaction with secondary plant metabolites. Academic Press, New York, pp. 3–54
Rohlfs M (2015a) Fungal secondary metabolite dynamics in fungus–grazer interactions: novel insights and unanswered questions. Front Microbiol 5:788. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00788
Rohlfs M (2015b) Fungal secondary metabolism in the light of animal–fungus interactions: from mechanism to ecological function. In: Zeilinger S, Martín J-F, García-Estrada C (eds) Biosynthesis and molecular genetics of fungal secondary metabolites. Springer, New York, pp. 177–198. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2531-5_9
Rohlfs M, Churchill ACL (2011) Fungal secondary metabolites as modulators of interactions with insects and other arthropods. Fungal Genet Biol 48:23–34. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2010.08.008
Rohlfs M, Albert M, Keller NP, Kempken F (2007) Secondary chemicals protect mould from fungivory. Biol Lett 3:523–525. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0338
Rowan DD (1993) Lolitrems, peramine and paxilline: mycotoxins of the ryegrass/endophyte interaction. Agric Ecosyst Environ 44:103–122. doi:10.1016/0167-8809(93)90041-M
Sawahata T, Shimano S, Suzuki M (2008) Tricholoma matsutake 1-octen-3-ol and methyl cinnamate repel mycophagous Proisotoma minuta (Collembola: Insecta). Mycorrhiza 18:111–114. doi:10.1007/s00572-007-0158-x
Schoonhoven LM, Van Loon JJA, Dicke M (2006) Insect–plant biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Schueffler A, Anke T (2014) Fungal natural products in research and development. Nat Prod Rep 31:1425–1448. doi:10.1039/c4np00060a
Shelton AM, Badenes-Perez FR (2006) Concepts and applications of trap cropping in pest management. Annu Rev Entomol 51:285–308. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150959
Spiteller P (2015) Chemical ecology of fungi. Nat Prod Rep 32:971–993. doi:10.1039/c4np00166d
Srivastava CN, Maurya P, Sharma P, Mohan L (2009) Prospective role of insecticides of fungal origin: review. Entomol Res 39:341–355. doi:10.1111/j.1748-5967.2009.00244.x
Steck K, Veit D, Grandy R, Badia SBI, Badia SBI, Mathews Z, Verschure P, Hansson BS, Knaden M (2012) A high-throughput behavioral paradigm for Drosophila olfaction—the Flywalk. Sci Rep 2:361. doi:10.1038/srep00361
Stensmyr MC, Dweck HKM, Farhan A, Ibba I, Strutz A, Mukunda L, Linz J, Grabe V, Steck K, Lavista-Llanos S, Wicher D, Sachse S, Knaden M, Becher PG, Seki Y, Hansson BS (2012) A conserved dedicated olfactory circuit for detecting harmful microbes in Drosophila. Cell 151:1345–1357. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.09.046
Strobel G (2006) Harnessing endophytes for industrial microbiology. Curr Opin Microbiol 9:240–244. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2006.04.001
Tanaka A, Tapper BA, Popay A, Parker EJ, Scott B (2005) A symbiosis expressed non-ribosomal peptide synthetase from a mutualistic fungal endophyte of perennial ryegrass confers protection to the symbiotum from insect herbivory. Mol Microbiol 57:1036–1050. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04747.x
Tasin M, Betta E, Carlin S, Gasperi F, Mattivi F, Pertot I (2011) Volatiles that encode host-plant quality in the grapevine moth. Phytochemistry 72:1999–2005. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.06.006
Tasin M, Knudsen GK, Pertot I (2012) Smelling a diseased host: grapevine moth responses to healthy and fungus-infected grapes. Anim Behav 83:555–562. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.12.003
Trienens M, Rohlfs M (2011) Experimental evolution of defense against a competitive mold confers reduced sensitivity to fungal toxins but no increased resistance in Drosophila larvae. BMC Evol Biol 11:206. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-206
Trienens M, Keller NP, Rohlfs M (2010) Fruit, flies and filamentous fungi—experimental analysis of animal-microbe competition using Drosophila melanogaster and Aspergillus mould as a model system. Oikos 119:1765–1775. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18088.x
Tsai W-T, Mason LJ, Woloshuk CP (2007) Effect of three stored-grain fungi on the development of Typhaea stercorea. J Stored Prod Res 43:129–133. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2006.01.001
Unelius CR, Schiebe C, Bohman B, Andersson MN, Schlyter F (2014) Non-host volatile blend optimization for forest protection against the European spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus. PLoS One 9:e85381. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085381
Wang H, Gloer J, Wicklow D, Dowd P (1995) Aflavinines and other antiinsectan metabolites from the ascostromata of Eupenicillium crustaceum and related species. Appl Environ Microbiol 61:4429–4435
Wang J-S, Groopman JD (1999) DNA damage by mycotoxins. Mutat Res Mol Mech Mutagen 424:167–181. doi:10.1016/S0027-5107(99)00017-2
Whyte AC, Gloer JB (1996) Sclerotiamide: a new member of the paraherquamide class with potent antiisectan activity from the sclerotia of Aspergillus sclerotiorum. J Nat Prod 59:1093–1095. doi:10.1021/np960607m
Wicklow DT, Shotwell OL (1983) Intrafungal distribution of aflatoxins among conidia and sclerotia of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Can J Microbiol 29:1–5. doi:10.1139/m83-001
Wicklow DT, Dowd PF, Tepaske MR, Gloer JB (1988a) Sclerotial metabolites of Aspergillus flavus toxic to a detritivorous maize insect (Carpophilus hemipterus, Nitidulidae). Trans Br Mycol Soc 91:433–438. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(88)80119-0
Wright VF, Vesonder RF, Ciegler A (1982) Mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites as insecticides. In: Kurstak E (ed) Microbial and viral pesticides. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 559–583
Xu Y, Furutani S, Ihara M, Ling Y, Yang X, Kai K, Hayashi H, Matsuda K (2015) Meroterpenoid chrodrimanins are selective and potent blockers of insect GABA-gated chloride channels. PLoS One 10:e0122629. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122629
Yin W-B, Amaike S, Wohlbach DJ, Gasch AP, Chiang Y-M, Wang CCC, Bok JW, Rohlfs M, Keller NP (2012) An Aspergillus nidulans bZIP response pathway hardwired for defensive secondary metabolism operates through aflR. Mol Microbiol 83:1024–1034. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2012.07986.x
Zeng RS, Wen Z, Niu G, MA S, MR B (2007) Allelochemical induction of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and amelioration of xenobiotic toxicity in Helicoverpa zea. J Chem Ecol 33:449–461. doi:10.1007/s10886-006-9238-1
Zhang Y, Li C, Swenson DC, Gloer JB, Wicklow DT, Dowd PF (2003) Novel antiisectan oxalicine alkaloids from two undescribed fungicolous Penicillium spp. Org Lett 5:773–776. doi:10.1021/ol0340686
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Funding
The work of M.R. is supported by the German Research Foundation, DFG (grant number RO3523/3-2).
Conflict of interest
Both authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Holighaus, G., Rohlfs, M. Fungal allelochemicals in insect pest management. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 100, 5681–5689 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-016-7573-x
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-016-7573-x