Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Botulinum Neurotoxins as a Therapeutic

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Neurotoxicity

  • 44 Accesses

Abstract

Since first recognized as the cause of food-borne botulism in the early nineteenth century, botulinum toxin was suggested as a potential treatment for involuntary spasms and movements. Multiple double-blind, placebo-controlled, and open-label studies provided evidence that botulinum toxin is a powerful therapeutic tool in a variety of neurological and other disorders including ophthalmologic, gastrointestinal, urologic, orthopedic, dermatologic, secretory, painful, and cosmetic disorders. This chapter is a review of the basic mechanisms of botulinum toxin action at the neuromuscular junction and a discussion on some of its main clinical applications.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

AAN:

American Academy of Neurology

Ach:

Acetylcholine

BoNT:

Botulinum toxin

CD-PROBE:

Cervical Dystonia Patient Registry for the Observation of Botulinum Toxin Type A Efficacy Study

EMG:

Electromyography

FDA:

Food and Drug Administration

AChRs:

Acetylcholine receptors

PD:

Parkinson’s disease

PREEMPT:

Phase III Research Evaluating Migraine Prophylaxis Therapy

SNARE:

Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor

TTA:

Therapeutics and Technology Assessment

UBI:

Unilateral brow injection

VAMP:

Vesicle-associated membrane protein

References

  • Aktaş, E., & Ömeroğlu, H. (2019). Botulinum toxin type A injection increases range of motion in hip, knee and ankle joint contractures of children with cerebral palsy. Eklem Hastalıkları ve Cerrahisi, 30(2), 155–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albanese, A. (2011). Terminology for preparations of botulinum neurotoxins: What a difference a name makes. Journal of the American Medical Association, 305, 89–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albanese, A., Asmus, F., Bhatia, K. P., Elia, A. E., Elibol, B., Filippini, G., Gasser, T., Krauss, J. K., Nardocci, N., Newton, A., & Valls-Solé, J. (2011). EFNS guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of primary dystonias. European Journal of Neurology, 18, 5–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albavera-Hernández, C., Rodríguez, J. M., & Idrovo, A. J. (2009). Safety of botulinum toxin type a among children with spasticity secondary to cerebral palsy: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Clinical Rehabilitation, 23(5), 394–407.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Albrecht, P., Jansen, A., Lee, J. I., Moll, M., Ringelstein, M., Rosenthal, D., Bigalke, H., Aktas, O., Hartung, H. P., & Hefter, H. (2019). High prevalence of neutralizing antibodies after long-term botulinum neurotoxin therapy. Neurology, 92, e48–e54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alonso-Navarro, H., Jiménez-Jiménez, F. J., Plaza-Nieto, J. F., Pilo-De la Fuente, B., Navacerrada, F., Arroyo-Solera, M., & Calleja, M. (2011). Treatment of severe bruxism with botulinum toxin type A. Review of Neurology, 53(2), 73–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anandan, C., & Jankovic, J. (2021). Botulinum toxin in movement disorders: An update. Toxins, 13, 42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Apalla, Z., Sotiriou, E., Lallas, A., Lazaridou, E., & Ioannides, D. (2013). Botulinum toxin A in postherpetic neuralgia: A parallel, randomized, double-blind, single-dose, placebo-controlled trial. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 29, 857–864.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Attal, N., De Andrade, D. C., Adam, F., Ranoux, D., Teixeira, M. J., Galhardoni, R., Raicher, I., Üçeyler, N., Sommer, C., & Bouhassira, D. (2016). Safety and efficacy of repeated injections of botulinum toxin A in peripheral neuropathic pain (BOTNEP): A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurology, 15, 555–565.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aurora, S. K., Dodick, D. W., Turkel, C. C., DeGryse, R. E., Silberstein, S. D., Lipton, R. B., Diener, H. C., & Brin, M. F. (2010). OnabotulinumtoxinA for treatment of chronic migraine: Results from the double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled phase of the PREEMPT 1 trial. Cephalalgia, 30, 793–803.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Azher, S. N., & Jankovic, J. (2005). Camptocormia: Pathogenesis, classification, and response to therapy. Neurology, 65, 355–359.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Babcock, M. S., Foster, L., Pasquina, P., & Jabbari, B. (2005). Treatment of pain attributed to plantar fasciitis with botulinum toxin A: A short-term, randomized, placebo controlled, double-blind study. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 84, 649–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bach-Rojecky, L., & Lacković, Z. (2009). Central origin of the antinociceptive action of botulinum toxin type A. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 94, 234–238.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baizabal-Carvallo, J. F., Jankovic, J., & Pappert, E. (2011). Flu-like symptoms following botulinum toxin therapy. Toxicon, 58(1), 1–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baizabal-Carvallo, J. F., Jankovic, J., & Feld, J. (2013). Flu-like symptoms and associated immunological response following therapy with botulinum toxins. Neurotoxicity Research, 24(2), 298–306.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bao, X., Tan, J. W., Flyzik, M., Ma, X. C., Liu, H., & Liu, H. Y. (2018). Effect of therapeutic exercise on knee osteoarthritis after intra-articular injection of botulinum toxin type A, hyaluronate or saline: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 50(6), 534–541.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, M., Schnitzler, A., Medeiros, L., Aguilar, M., Lehnert-Batar, A., & Minnasch, P. (2010). Efficacy and safety of NT 201 for upper limb spasticity of various etiologies--a randomized parallel-group study. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 122(4), 295–302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basciani, M., Di Rienzo, F., Fontana, A., Copetti, M., Pellegrini, F., & Intiso, D. (2011). Botulinum toxin type B for sialorrhoea in children with cerebral palsy: A randomized trial comparing three doses. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 53(6), 559–564.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bashir, H. H., & Jankovic, J. (2020). Treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Neurologic Clinics, 38(2), 379–396.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batisti, J. P., Kleinfelder, A. D., Galli, N. B., Moro, A., Munhoz, R. P., & Teive, H. A. (2017). Treatment of hemifacial spasm with botulinum toxin type A: Effective, long lasting and well tolerated. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria, 75, 87–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumann, L., Slezinger, A., Halem, M., Vujevich, J., Mallin, K., Charles, C., Martin, L. K., Black, L., & Bryde, J. (2005). Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of the safety and efficacy of Myobloc (botulinum toxin type B) for the treatment of palmar hyperhidrosis. Dermatologic Surgery, 31, 263–270.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, W. J. (2020). Botulinum toxin in the treatment of headache. Toxins (Basel), 12, 803.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellows, S., & Jankovic, J. (2019). Immunogenicity associated with botulinum toxin treatment. Toxins (Basel), 11(9), 491.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benecke, R., & Dressler, D. (2007). Botulinum toxin treatment of axial and cervical dystonia. Disability and Rehabilitation, 29, 1769–1777.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benecke, R., Jost, W. H., Kaňovsky, P., Ruzicka, E., Comes, G., & Grafe, S. (2005). A new botulinum toxin type A free of complexing proteins for treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology, 64, 1949–1951.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentivoglio, A. R., Fasano, A., Ialongo, T., Soleti, F., Lo Fermo, S., & Albanese, A. (2009). Fifteen-year experience in treating blepharospasm with Botox or Dysport: Same toxin, two drugs. Neurotoxicity Research, 15, 224–231.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berman, B., Seeberger, L., & Kumar, R. (2005). Long-term safety, efficacy, dosing, and development of resistance with botulinum toxin type B in cervical dystonia. Movement Disorders, 20, 233–237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bielamowicz, S., Squire, S., Bidus, K., & Ludlow, C. L. (2001). Assessment of posterior cricoarytenoid botulinum toxin injections in patients with abductor spasmodic dysphonia. The Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology, 110, 406–412.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bihari, K. (2005). Safety, effectiveness, and duration of effect of BOTOX after switching from Dysport for blepharospasm, cervical dystonia, and hemifacial spasm dystonia, and hemifacial spasm. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 21, 433–438.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Billnitzer, A., & Jankovic, J. (2020). Current management of tics and Tourette syndrome: Behavioral, pharmacologic, and surgical treatments. Neurotherapeutics, 17(4), 1681–1693.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanni, L., Thomas, A., Varanese, S., Scorrano, V., & Onofrj, M. (2007). Botulinum toxin treatment of lateral axial dystonia in parkinsonism. Movement Disorders, 22, 2097–2103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boone, B. (2015). Botulinum toxin in aesthetic medicine. In European handbook of dermatological treatments (pp. 1089–1106). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Brans, J. W., Lindeboom, R., Snoek, J. W., Zwarts, M. J., van Weerden, T. W., Brunt, E. R., van Hilten, J. J., van der Kamp, W., Prins, M. H., & Speelman, J. D. (1996). Botulinum toxin versus trihexyphenidyl in cervical dystonia: A prospective, randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Neurology, 46, 1066–1072.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bridoux, V., Gourcerol, G., Kianifard, B., Touchais, J. Y., Ducrotte, P., Leroi, A. M., Michot, F., & Tuech, J. J. (2011). Botulinum A toxin as a treatment for overactive rectum with associated fecal incontinence. Colorectal Disease, 14(3), 342–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brin, M. F., Lew, M. F., Adler, C. H., Comella, C. L., Factor, S. A., Jankovic, J., O’Brien, C., Murray, J. J., Wallace, J. D., Willmer-Hulme, A., & Koller, M. (1999). Safety and efficacy of NeuroBloc (botulinum toxin type B) in type A-resistant cervical dystonia. Neurology, 53(7), 1431–1438.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brin, M. F., Lyons, K. E., Doucette, J., Adler, C. H., Caviness, J. N., Comella, C. L., Dubinsky, R. M., Friedman, J. H., Manyam, B. V., Matsumoto, J. Y., Pullman, S. L., Rajput, A. H., Sethi, K. D., Tanner, C., & Koller, W. C. (2001). A randomized, double masked, controlled trial of botulinum toxin type A in essential hand tremor. Neurology, 56, 1523–1528.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brin, M. F., Comella, C. L., Jankovic, J., Lai, F., Naumann, M., & CD-017 BoNTA Study Group. (2008). Long-term treatment with botulinum toxin type A in cervical dystonia has low immunogenicity by mouse protection assay. Movement Disorders, 23, 1353–1360.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brisinda, G., Maria, G., Sganga, G., Bentivoglio, A. R., Albanese, A., & Castagneto, M. (2002). Effectiveness of higher doses of botulinum toxin to induce healing in patients with chronic anal fissures. Surgery, 131, 179–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cadeddu, F., Bentivoglio, A. R., Brandara, F., Marniga, G., Brisinda, G., & Maria, G. (2005). Outlet type constipation in Parkinson’s disease: Results of botulinum toxin treatment. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 22, 997–1003.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caleo, M., & Restani, L. (2018). Direct central nervous system effects of botulinum neurotoxin. Toxicon, 147, 68–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camargo, C. H., Teive, H. A., Becker, N., Munhoz, R. P., & Werneck, L. C. (2011). Botulinum toxin type A and cervical dystonia: A seven-year follow-up. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria, 69(5), 745–750.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carruthers, J., Solish, N., Humphrey, S., Rosen, N., Muhn, C., Bertucci, V., Swift, A., Metelitsa, A., Rubio, R. G., Waugh, J., Quiring, J., Shears, G., & Carruthers, A. (2017). Injectable daxibotulinumtoxinA for the treatment of glabellar lines: A phase 2, randomized, dose-ranging, double-blind, multicenter comparison with onabotulinumtoxin A and placebo. Dermatologic Surgery, 43, 1321–1331.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chancellor, M. B., Elovic, E., Esquenazi, A., Naumann, M., Segal, K. R., Schiavo, G., Smith, C. P., & Ward, A. B. (2013). Evidence-based review and assessment of botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of urologic conditions. Toxicon, 67, 129–140.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, H. J., Hong, B. Y., Lee, S. J., Lee, S., Park, J. H., & Kwon, J. Y. (2017). Efficacy and safety of letibotulinum toxin A for the treatment of dynamic equinus foot deformity in children with cerebral palsy: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Trial Toxins (Basel), 9(8), 252.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chankrachang, S., Arayawichanont, A., Poungvarin, N., Nidhinandana, S., Boonkongchuen, P., Towanabut, S., Sithinamsuwan, P., & Kongsaengdao, S. (2011). Prophylactic botulinum type A toxin complex (Dysport(R)) for migraine without aura. Headache, 51(1), 52–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, M. A., Barron, R., Tanis, D. C., Gill, C. E., & Charles, P. D. (2007). Comparison of botulinum neurotoxin preparations for the treatment of cervical dystonia. Clinical Therapeutics, 29, 1325–1337.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapple, C., Sievert, K. D., MacDiarmid, S., Khullar, V., Radziszewski, P., Nardo, C., Thompson, C., Zhou, J., & Haag-Molkenteller, C. (2013). OnabotulinumtoxinA 100 U significantly improves all idiopathic overactive bladder symptoms and quality of life in patients with overactive bladder and urinary incontinence: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. European Urology, 64, 249–256.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charles, D., Brashear, A., Hauser, R. A., Li, H. I., Boo, L. M., & Brin, M. F. (2012). Efficacy, tolerability, and immunogenicity of onabotulinumtoxin A in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial for cervical dystonia. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 35, 208–214.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, J. L., & Kuo, H. C. (2020). Clinical application of intravesical botulinum toxin type A for overactive bladder and interstitial cystitis. Investigative and Clinical Urology, 61(Suppl 1), S33–S42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, G., & Liao, L. (2011). Injections of botulinum toxin A into the detrusor to treat neurogenic detrusor overactivity secondary to spinal cord injury. International Urology and Nephrology, 43(3), 655–662.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chinnapongse, R., Gullo, K., Nemeth, P., Zhang, Y., & Griggs, L. (2011). Safety and efficacy of botulinum toxin type B for treatment of sialorrhea in Parkinson’s disease: A prospective double-blind trial. Movement Disorders, 27(2), 219–226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, J. W., Youn, C. S., An, H. T., Yoo, J. Y., Na, J. I., Park, K. C., Youn, S. W., & Huh, C. H. (2013). Combined use of botulinum toxin type A and B for forehead rhytides: A randomized, double-blind, split-face study. The Journal of Dermatological Treatment, 24(2), 126–132.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cillino, S., Raimondi, G., Guepratte, N., Damiani, S., Cillino, M., Di Pace, F., & Casuccio, A. (2010). Long-term efficacy of botulinum toxin A for treatment of blepharospasm, hemifacial spasm, and spastic entropion: A multicenter study using two drug-dose escalation indexes. Eye, 24, 600–607.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, R., Hallett, M., & Cohen, L. G. (1995). Double-blind trial of botulinum toxin for treatment of focal hand dystonia. Movement Disorders, 43, 466–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Comella, C. L., Buchman, A. S., Tanner, C. M., Brown-Toms, N. C., & Goetz, C. G. (1992). Botulinum toxin injection for spasmodic torticollis: Increased magnitude of benefit with electromyographic assistance. Neurology, 42, 878–882.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comella, C. L., Jankovic, J., Shannon, K. M., Tsui, J., Swenson, M., Leurgans, S., Fan, W., & Dystonia Study Group. (2005). Comparison of botulinum toxin serotypes A and B for the treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology, 65(9), 1423–1429.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comella, C. L., Jankovic, J., Truong, D. D., Hanschmann, A., Grafe, S., & U.S. XEOMIN Cervical Dystonia Study Group. (2011). Efficacy and safety of incobotulinumtoxin A (NT 201, XEOMIN®, botulinum neurotoxin type A, without accessory proteins) in patients with cervical dystonia. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 308(1–2), 103–109.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comella, C., Ferreira, J. J., Pain, E., Azoulai, M., & Om, S. (2020). Patient perspectives on the therapeutic profile of botulinum neurotoxin type A in cervical dystonia. Journal of Neurology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-10217-7

  • Contarino, M. F., Kruisdijk, J. J., Koster, L., Ongerboer de Visser, B. W., Speelman, J. D., & Koelman, J. H. (2007). Sensory integration in writer’s cramp: Comparison with controls and evaluation of botulinum toxin effect. Clinical Neurophysiology, 118, 2195–2206.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cordivari, C., Misra, V. P., Catania, S., & Lees, A. J. (2001). Treatment of dystonic clenched fist with botulinum toxin. Movement Disorders, 16, 907–913.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, J., Espírito-Santo, C., Borges, A., Ferreira, J. J., Coelho, M., Moore, P., & Sampaio, C. (2005). Botulinum toxin type A therapy for hemifacial spasm. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2005, Cd004899.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Crowner, B. E., Torres-Russotto, D., Carter, A. R., & Racette, B. A. (2010). Systemic weakness after therapeutic injections of botulinum toxin A: A case series and review of the literature. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 33, 243–247.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dadgardoust, P. D., Rosales, R. L., Asuncion, R. M., & Dressler, D. (2019). Botulinum neurotoxin a therapy efficacy and safety for oromandibular dystonia: A meta-analysis. Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna), 126(2), 141–148.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deffontaines-Rufin, S., Weil, M., Verollet, D., Peyrat, L., & Amarenco, G. (2011). Botulinum toxin A for the treatment of neurogenic detrusor overactivity in multiple sclerosis patients. International Braz J Urol, 37(5), 642–648.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado, M. R., Hirtz, D., Aisen, M., Ashwal, S., Fehlings, D. L., McLaughlin, J., Morrison, L. A., Shrader, M. W., Tilton, A., & Vargus-Adams, J. (2010). Practice parameter: Pharmacologic treatment of spasticity in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology, 74(4), 336–343.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Denys, P., Le Normand, L., Ghout, I., Costa, P., Chartier-Kastler, E., Grise, P., Hermieu, J.-F., Amarenco, G., Karsenty, G., Saussine, C., Barbot, F., & VESITOX Study Group in France. (2012). Efficacy and safety of low doses of onabotulinumtoxin A for the treatment of refractory idiopathic overactive bladder: A multicentre, double blind, randomised, placebo-controlled dose-ranging study. European Urology, 61, 520–529.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dessy, L. A., Fallico, N., Mazzocchi, M., & Scuderi, N. (2011). Botulinum toxin for glabellar lines: A review of the efficacy and safety of currently available products. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology, 12(6), 377–388.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A., & Jankovic, J. (2006a). Botulinum toxin in dermatology – Beyond wrinkles and sweat. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 5, 169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A., & Jankovic, J. (2006b). Treatment of advanced Parkinson’s disease. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 6, 1181–1197.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, H. C., Dodick, D. W., Aurora, S. K., Turkel, C. C., DeGryse, R. E., Lipton, R. B., Silberstein, S. D., Brin, M. F., & PREEMPT 2 Chronic Migraine Study Group. (2010). Onabotulinumtoxin A for treatment of chronic migraine: Results from the double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase of the PREEMPT 2 trial. Cephalalgia, 30, 804–814.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doft, M. A., Kasten, J. L., & Ascherman, J. A. (2011). Treatment of axillary hyperhidrosis with botulinum toxin: A single surgeon’s experience with 53 consecutive patients. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 35(6), 1079–1086.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dogu, O., Apaydin, D., Sevim, S., Talas, D. U., & Aral, M. (2004). Ultrasound guided versus ‘blind’ intraparotid injections of botulinum toxin-A for the treatment of sialorrhoea in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 106, 93–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D. (2002). Dysport produces intrinsically more swallowing problems than Botox: Unexpected results from a conversion factor study in cervical dystonia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 73(5), 604.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D. (2004). Clinical presentation and management of antibody-induced failure of botulinum toxin therapy. Movement Disorders, 19(Suppl. 8), S92–S100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D. (2009). Routine use of Xeomin in patients previously treated with Botox: Long term results. European Journal of Neurology, 16(Suppl 2), 2–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D. (2010). Comparing Botox and Xeomin for axillar hyperhidrosis. Journal of Neural Transmission, 117(3), 317–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D. (2012). Five-year experience with incobotulinumtoxin A (Xeomin®): The first botulinum toxin drug free of complexing proteins. European Journal of Neurology, 19(3), 385–389.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D., & Adib Saberi, F. (2017). Safety of botulinum toxin short interval therapy using incobotulinumtoxin A. Journal of Neural Transmission, 124, 437–440.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D., & Benecke, R. (2007). Pharmacology of therapeutic botulinum toxin preparations. Disability and Rehabilitation, 29, 1761–1768.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D., & Bigalke, H. (2005). Botulinum toxin type B de novo therapy of cervical dystonia: Frequency of antibody induced therapy failure. Journal of Neurology, 252, 904–907.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D., & Bigalke, H. (2017). Immunological aspects of botulinum toxin therapy. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 17, 487–494.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D., Zettl, U., Benecke, R., & Bigalke, H. (2000). Can intravenous immunoglobulin improve antibody-mediated botulinum toxin therapy failure? Movement Disorders, 15, 1279–1281.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D., Adib Saberi, F., & Benecke, R. (2002). Botulinum toxin type B for treatment of axillar hyperhidrosis. Journal of Neurology, 249, 1729–1732.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D., Mander, G., & Fink, K. (2012). Measuring the potency labelling of onabotulinumtoxin A (Botox®) and incobotulinumtoxin A (Xeomin®) in an LD50 assay. Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna), 119(1), 13–15.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dressler, D., Pan, L., & Adib Saberi, F. (2018). Antibody-induced failure of botulinum toxin therapy: Re-start with low-antigenicity drugs offers a new treatment opportunity. Journal of Neural Transmission, 125, 1481–1486.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duarte, G. S., Castelão, M., Rodrigues, F. B., Marques, R. E., Ferreira, J., Sampaio, C., Moore, A. P., & Costa, J. (2016). Botulinum toxin type A versus botulinum toxin type B for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 10(10), CD004314.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, J. W., Gracies, J. M., Hayes, M., Zeman, B., Singer, B. J., & Multicentre Study Group. (2012). A prospective, multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of onabotulinumtoxin A to treat plantar flexor/invertor overactivity after stroke. Clinical Rehabilitation, 26, 787–797.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dutton, J. J., White, J. J., & Richard, M. J. (2006). Myobloc for the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm in patients refractory to Botox. Ophthalmic Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 22, 173–177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eckardt, A., & Kuettner, C. (2003). Treatment of gustatory sweating (Frey’s syndrome) with botulinum toxin A. Head & Neck, 25, 624–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisa, M., Singer, C., Sengun, C., Russel, A., Jabbari, B., & Papapetropoulos, S. (2008). Treatment of painful limbs/moving extremities with botulinum toxin type A injections. European Neurology, 60(2), 104–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elizondo-Rodriguez, J., Araujo-Lopez, Y., Moreno-Gonzalez, J. A., Cardenas-Estrada, E., Mendoza-Lemus, O., & Acosta-Olivo, C. (2013). A comparison of botulinum toxin A and intralesional steroids for the treatment of plantar fasciitis: A randomized, double-blinded study. Foot & Ankle International, 34, 8–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elovic, E. P., Munin, M. C., Kaňovský, P., Hanschmann, A., Hiersemenzel, R., & Marciniak, C. (2016). Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of incobotulinumtoxina for upper-limb post-stroke spasticity. Muscle & Nerve, 53(3), 415–421.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emile, S. H., Elfeki, H. A., Elbanna, H. G., Youssef, M., Thabet, W., Abd El-Hamed, T. M., Said, B., & Lotfy, A. (2016). Efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin in treatment of anismus: A systematic review. World Journal of Gastrointestinal Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 7(3), 453–462.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Erbguth, F., Claus, D., Engelhardt, A., & Dressler, D. (1993). Systemic effect of local botulinum toxin injections unmasks subclinical Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 56, 1235–1236.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Evidente, V. G., & Adler, C. H. (2010). An update on the neurologic applications of botulinum toxins. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 10(5), 338–344.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evidente, V. G. H., Fernandez, H. H., LeDoux, M. S., Brashear, A., Grafe, S., Hanschmann, A., & Comella, C. L. (2013). A randomized, double-blind study of repeated incobotulinumtoxin A (Xeomin(®)) in cervical dystonia. Journal of Neural Transmission, 120, 1699–1707.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fabbri, M., Leodori, G., Fernandes, R. M., Bhidayasiri, R., Marti, M. J., Colosimo, C., & Ferreira, J. J. (2016). Neutralizing antibody and botulinum toxin therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurotoxicity Research, 29, 105–117.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Factor, S. A., Molho, E. S., Evans, S., & Feustel, P. J. (2005). Efficacy and safety of repeated doses of botulinum toxin type B in type A resistant and responsive cervical dystonia. Movement Disorders, 20, 1152–1160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faham, M., Ahmadi, A., Silverman, E., Harouni, G. G., & Dabirmoghaddam, P. (2019). Quality of life after botulinum toxin injection in patients with adductor spasmodic dysphonia; a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Voice, S0892-1997(19), 30184–30185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falahatkar, S., Shahab, E., Gholamjani Moghaddam, K., & Kazemnezhad, E. (2015). Transurethral intraprostatic injection of botulinum neurotoxin type A for the treatment of chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: Results of a prospective pilot double-blind and randomized placebo-controlled study. BJU International, 116, 641–649.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farid, M., El Monem, H. A., Omar, W., El Nakeeb, A., Fikry, A., Youssef, T., Yousef, M., Ghazy, H., Fouda, E., El Metwally, T., Khafagy, W., Ahmed, S., El Awady, S., Morshed, M., & El Lithy, R. (2009a). Comparative study between biofeedback retraining and botulinum neurotoxin in the treatment of anismus patients. International Journal of Colorectal Disease, 24, 115–120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farid, M., Youssef, T., Mahdy, T., Omar, W., Moneim, H. A., El Nakeeb, A., & Youssef, M. (2009b). Comparative study between botulinum toxin injection and partial division of puborectalis for treating anismus. International Journal of Colorectal Disease, 24, 327–334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frasson, E., Brigo, F., Acler, M., Didonè, G., Vicentini, S., & Bertolasi, L. (2011). Botulinum toxin type A vs type B for axillary hyperhidrosis in a case series of patients observed for 6 months. Archives of Dermatology, 147(1), 122–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freitag, F. G., Diamond, S., Diamond, M., & Urban, G. (2008). Botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of chronic migraine without medication overuse. Headache, 48, 201–209.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frevert, J. (2009a). Xeomin: An innovative new botulinum toxin type A. European Journal of Neurology, 16(Suppl 2), 11–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frevert, J. (2009b). Xeomin is free from complexing proteins. Toxicon, 54(5), 697–701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frevert, J. (2010). Content of botulinum neurotoxin in Botox®/Vistabel®, Dysport®/Azzalure®, and Xeomin®/Bocouture®. Drugs in R & D, 10(2), 67–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, C. G., Fink, H., Blobner, M., & Martyn, J. (2012). A single injection of botulinum toxin decreases the margin of safety of neurotransmission at local and distant sites. Anesthesia and Analgesia, 114(1), 102–119.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frueh, B. R., Felt, D. P., Wojno, T. H., & Musch, D. C. (1984). Treatment of blepharospasm with botulinum toxin. A preliminary report. Archives of Ophthalmology, 102(10), 1464–1468.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gazerani, P., Pedersen, N. S., Staahl, C., Drewes, A. M., & Arendt-Nielsen, L. (2009). Subcutaneous botulinum toxin type A reduces capsaicin-induced trigeminal pain and vasomotor reactions in human skin. Pain, 141, 60–69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geenen, C., Consky, E., & Ashby, P. (1996). Localizing muscles for botulinum toxin treatment of focal hand dystonia. The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 23(3), 194–197.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghasemi, M., Ansari, M., Basiri, K., & Shaigannejad, V. (2014). The effects of intradermal botulinum toxin type a injections on pain symptoms of patients with diabetic neuropathy. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences : The Official Journal of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, 19, 106–111.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glogau, R., Kane, M., Beddingfield, F., Somogyi, C., Lei, X., Caulkins, C., & Gallagher, C. (2012). OnabotulinumtoxinA: A meta-analysis of duration of effect in the treatment of glabellar lines. Dermatologic Surgery, 38(11), 1794–1803.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gourcerol, G., Bénard, C., Melchior, C., Touchais, J. Y., Ducrotte, P., Menard, J. F., Bridoux, V., & Leroi, A. M. (2016). Botulinum toxin: An endoscopic approach for treating fecal incontinence. Endoscopy, 48(5), 484–488.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gracies, J. M., Bayle, N., Goldberg, S., & Simpson, D. M. (2014). Botulinum toxin type B in the spastic arm: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, preliminary study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 95, 1303–1311.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gracies, J. M., Brashear, A., Jech, R., McAllister, P., Banach, M., Valkovic, P., Walker, H., Marciniak, C., Deltombe, T., Skoromets, A., Khatkova, S., Edgley, S., Gul, F., Catus, F., De Fer, B. B., Vilain, C., Picaut, P., & International AbobotulinumtoxinA Adult Upper Limb Spasticity Study Group. (2015). Safety and efficacy of abobotulinumtoxin A for hemiparesis in adults with upper limb spasticity after stroke or traumatic brain injury: A double-blind randomized controlled trial. Lancet Neurology, 14, 992–1001.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grafe, S, & Hanschmann, A. (2010). Safety and efficacy of repeated NT 201 (botulinum neurotoxin type A free from complexing proteins) injections of patients with cervical dystonia: a first long-term safety analysis. [P01.270] American Academy of Neurology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grafe, S., Comella, C., Jankovic, J., Truong, D., & Hanschmann, A. (2009a). Efficacy and safety of NT 201: Botulinum neurotoxin type A free from complexing proteins, in treatment-naive cervical dystonia patients. (Abstract Tu-401). International Congress of Parkinson’s Disease and Movement Disorders. Paris, France. Move Disord S3-S92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grafe, S., Comella, C, & Sassin, I. (2009b). Clinical efficacy in focal dystonia and overall tolerability of NT 201 (botulinum neurotoxin free from complexing proteins) (Abstract PO7–081). American Academy of Neurology. Seattle, Washington, DC: 4. Neurology A34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, P., Kang, U., Fahn, S., Brin, M., Moskowitz, C., & Flaster, E. (1990). Double-blind, placebo controlled trial of botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology, 40, 1213–1218.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guidubaldi, A., Fasano, A., Ialongo, T., Piano, C., Pompili, M., Mascianà, R., Siciliani, L., Sabatelli, M., & Bentivoglio, A. R. (2011). Botulinum toxin A versus B in sialorrhea: A prospective, randomized, double-blind, crossover pilot study in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 26, 313–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, A. D., & Visvanathan, R. (2016). Botulinum toxin for foot dystonia in patients with Parkinson’s disease having deep brain stimulation: A case series and a pilot study. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 48(6), 559–562.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, A. D., Tucker, G., Koblar, S., Visvanathan, R., & Cameron, I. D. (2018). Spatiotemporal gait analysis and lower limb functioning in foot dystonia treated with botulinum toxin. Toxins (Basel), 10(12), 532.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gurey, L. E., Sinclair, C. F., & Blitzer, A. (2013). A new paradigm for the management of essential vocal tremor with botulinum toxin. Laryngoscope, 123(10), 2497–2501.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gusev, Y. I., Banach, M., Simonow, A., Skoromets, A., Czlonkowska, A., Shmidt, A., Bojakowski, J., Fryze, W., Vollmer-Haase, J., Haas, J., Nowicki, J., Hagenah, J., Kölmel, H. W., Neumann, C., & Timirbaeva, S. L. (2008). Efficacy and safety of botulinum type A toxin in adductor spasticity due to multiple sclerosis. Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain, 16, 175–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallett, M., Albanese, A., Dressler, D., Segal, K. R., Simpson, D. M., Truong, D., & Jankovic, J. (2013). Evidence-based review and assessment of botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of movement disorders. Toxicon, 67, 94–114.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, P. A., & Jankovic, J. (1998). Mouse bioassay versus Western blot assay for botulinum toxin antibodies: Correlation with clinical response. Neurology, 50(6), 1624–1629.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hashemi, S. M., Okhovat, A., Amini, S., & Pourghasemian, M. (2013). Comparing the effects of botulinum toxin-A and cetirizine on the treatment of allergic rhinitis. Allergology International, 62, 245–249.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawlitschka, A., Holzmann, C., Wree, A., & Antipova, V. (2018). Repeated intrastriatal botulinum neurotoxin-A injection in hemiparkinsonian rats increased the beneficial effect on rotational behavior. Toxins (Basel), 10(9), 368.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hefter, H., Rosenthal, D., & Moll, M. (2016). High botulinum toxin-neutralizing antibody prevalence under long-term cervical dystonia treatment. Movement Disorders Clinical Practice, 3, 500–506.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hertegård, S., Granqvist, S., & Lindestad, P. A. (2000). Botulinum toxin injections for essential voice tremor. The Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology, 109(2), 204–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hexsel, D., Brum, C., & do Prado, D. Z. (2012). Field effect of two commercial preparations of botulinum toxin type A: A prospective, double-blind, randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 67(2), 226–232.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirota, N., Hirota, M., & Mezaki, T. (2008). Dystonic frowning without blepharospasm. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 14(7), 579–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hompes, R., Harmston, C., Wijffels, N., Jones, O. M., Cunningham, C., & Lindsey, I. (2012). Excellent response rate of anismus to botulinum toxin if rectal prolapse misdiagnosed as anismus (‘pseudoanismus’) is excluded. Colorectal Disease, 14, 224–230.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Y. C., Wei, S. H., Wang, H. K., & Lieu, F. K. (2010). Ultrasonographic guided botulinum toxin type A treatment for plantar fasciitis: An outcome-based investigation for treating pain and gait changes. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 42, 136–140.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hull, M., Parnes, M., & Jankovic, J. (2021). Botulinum neurotoxin injections in childhood Opisthotonus. Toxins (Basel), 13, 137.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Inoue, K., & Rogers, J. D. (2007). Botulinum toxin injection into Riolan’s muscle: Somatosensory ‘trick’. European Neurology, 58, 138–141.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ito, K., Yanagishita, T., Ohshima, Y., Tamada, Y., & Watanabe, D. (2011). Therapeutic effectiveness of botulinum toxin type A based on severity of palmar hyperhidrosis. The Journal of Dermatology, 38(9), 859–863.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, C. E., Gronseth, G., Rosenfeld, J., Barohn, R. J., Dubinsky, R., Simpson, C. B., McVey, A., Kittrell, P. P., King, R., Herbelin, L., & Muscle Study Group. (2009). Randomized double blind study of botulinum toxin type B for sialorrhea in ALS patients. Muscle & Nerve, 39, 137–143.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jakubowski, M., McAllister, P. J., Bajwa, Z. H., Ward, T. N., Smith, P., & Burstein, R. (2006). Exploding vs imploding headache in migraine prophylaxis with botulinum toxin A. Pain, 125, 286–295.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J. (2001). Needle EMG guidance for injection of botulinum toxin. Needle EMG guidance is rarely required. Muscle & Nerve, 24(11), 1568–1570.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J. (2010a). Botulinum toxin. In K. Kompoliti & L. Verhagen (Eds.), Encyclopedia of movement disorders (1st ed.). Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J. (2010b). Camptocormia, head drop and other bent spine syndromes: Heterogeneous etiology and pathogenesis of Parkinsonian deformities. Movement Disorders, 25(5), 527–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J. (2017). Botulinum toxin: State of the art. Movement Disorders, 32(8), 1131–1138.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J. (2018). An update on new and unique uses of botulinum toxin in movement disorders. Toxicon, 147, 84–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J., & Orman, J. (1987). Botulinum A toxin for cranial-cervical dystonia: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology, 37(4), 616–623.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J., Schwartz, K., Clemence, W., Aswad, A., & Mordaunt, J. (1996). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate botulinum toxin type A in essential hand tremor. Movement Disorders, 11, 250–256.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J., Vuong, K. D., & Ahsan, J. (2003). Comparison of efficacy and immunogenicity of original versus current botulinum toxin in cervical dystonia. Neurology, 60, 1186–1188.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J., Hunter, C., Dolimbek, B. Z., Dolimbek, G. S., Adler, C. H., Brashear, A., Comella, C. L., Gordon, M., Riley, D. E., Sethi, K., Singer, C., Stacy, M., Tarsy, D., & Atassi, M. Z. (2006). Clinico-immunologic aspects of botulinum toxin type B treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology, 67(12), 2233–2235.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J., Comella, C., Hanschmann, A., & Grafe, S. (2011a). Efficacy and safety of incobotulinumtoxin A (NT 201, Xeomin) in the treatment of blepharospasm-a randomized trial. Movement Disorders, 26(8), 1521–1528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J., Adler, C. H., Charles, P. D., Comella, C., Stacy, M., Schwartz, M., Sutch, S. M., Brin, M. F., & Papapetropoulos, S. (2011b). Rationale and design of a prospective study: Cervical Dystonia Patient Registry for Observation of OnaBotulinumtoxinA Efficacy (CD PROBE). BMC Neurology, 11, 140.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J., Adler, C. H., Charles, D., Comella, C., Stacy, M., Schwartz, M., Manack Adams, A., & Brin, M. F. (2015). Primary results from the cervical dystonia patient registry for observation of onabotulinumtoxina efficacy (CD PROBE). Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 349(1–2), 84–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, J., Truong, D., Patel, A. T., Brashear, A., Evatt, M., Rubio, R. G., Oh, C. K., Snyder, D., Shears, G., & Comella, C. (2018). Injectable daxibotulinumtoxinA in cervical dystonia: A phase 2 dose-escalation multicenter study. Movement Disorders Clinical Practice, 5, 273–282.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffery, S., Fynes, M., Lee, F., Wang, K., Williams, L., & Morley, R. (2007). Efficacy and complications of intradetrusor injection with botulinum toxin A in patients with refractory idiopathic detrusor overactivity. BJU International, 100, 1302–1306.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jocson, A., & Lew, M. (2019). Use of botulinum toxin in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 59, 57–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jost, W. H., & Kohl, A. (2001). Botulinum toxin: Evidence-based medicine criteria in blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. Journal of Neurology, 248(Suppl 1), 21–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jost, W. H., Blümel, J., & Grafe, S. (2007). Botulinum neurotoxin type A free of complexing proteins (XEOMIN) in focal dystonia. Drugs, 67(5), 669–683.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaji, R., Osako, Y., Suyama, K., Maeda, T., Uechi, Y., Iwasaki, M., & GSK1358820 Spasticity Study Group. (2010). Botulinum toxin type A in post-stroke lower limb spasticity: A multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Neurology, 257(8), 1330–1337.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, M. A., Gold, M. H., Coleman, W. P., 3rd, Jones, D. H., Tanghetti, E. A., Alster, T. S., Rohrer, T. E., Burgess, C. M., Shamban, A. T., & Finn, E. (2015). A randomized, double blind trial to investigate the equivalence of incobotulinumtoxin A and onabotulinumtoxin A for glabellar frown lines. Dermatologic Surgery, 41(11), 1310–1319.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaňovský, P., Slawek, J., Denes, Z., Platz, T., Sassin, I., Comes, G., & Grafe, G. (2009). Efficacy and safety of botulinum neurotoxin NT 201 in poststroke upper limb spasticity. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 32, 259–265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaňovský, P., Slawek, J., Denes, Z., Platz, T., Comes, G., Grafe, S., & Pulte, I. (2011). Efficacy and safety of treatment with incobotulinum toxin A (botulinum neurotoxin type A free from complexing proteins; NT 201) in post-stroke upper limb spasticity. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 43(6), 486–492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kenney, C., & Jankovic, J. (2008). Botulinum toxin in the treatment of blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. Journal of Neural Transmission, 115, 585–591.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerscher, M., Roll, S., Becker, A., & Wigger-Alberti, W. (2012). Comparison of the spread of three botulinum toxin type A preparations. Archives of Dermatological Research, 304(2), 155–161.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, A. W. (2001). Complications and adverse reactions with the use of botulinum toxin. Seminars in Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery, 20, 109–120.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kollewe, K., Mohammadi, B., Köhler, S., Pickenbrock, H., Dengler, R., & Dressler, D. (2015). Blepharospasm: Long-term treatment with either Botox, Xeomin or Dysport. Journal of Neural Transmission, 122, 427–431.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kruisdijk, J. J., Koelman, J. H., Ongerboer de Visser, B. W., de Haan, R. J., & Speelman, J. D. (2007). Botulinum toxin for writer’s cramp: A randomized, placebo controlled trial and 1-year follow-up. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 78, 264–270.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo, H. C. (2006). Will suburothelial injection of small dose of botulinum A toxin have similar therapeutic effects and less adverse events for refractory detrusor overactivity? Urology, 68, 993–997. discussion 997–998.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kwon, J. Y., Hwang, J. H., & Kim, J. S. (2010). Botulinum toxin A injection into calf muscles for treatment of spastic equinus in cerebral palsy: A controlled trial comparing sonography and electric stimulation-guided injection techniques: A preliminary report. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 89, 279–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laccourreye, O., Muscatello, L., Gutierrez-Fonseca, R., Seckin, S., Brasnu, D., & Bonan, B. (1999). Severe Frey syndrome after parotidectomy: Treatment with botulinum neurotoxin type A. Annales d’Oto-Laryngologie et de Chirurgie Cervico-Faciale, 116, 137–142.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lacroix-Desmazes, S., Mouly, S., Popoff, M. R., & Colosimo, C. (2017). Systematic analysis of botulinum neurotoxin type A immunogenicity in clinical studies. Basal Ganglia, 9, 12–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lagalla, G., Millevolte, M., Capecci, M., Provinciali, L., & Ceravolo, M. G. (2006). Botulinum toxin type A for drooling in Parkinson’s disease: A double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Movement Disorders, 21, 704–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, K. H., Sikorra, S., Weisemann, J., Maatsch, H., Perry, K., Rummel, A., Binz, T., & Jin, R. (2018). Structural and biochemical characterization of the protease domain of the mosaic botulinum neurotoxin type HA. Pathogens and Disease, 76(4), fty044.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langevin, P., Lowcock, J., Weber, J., Nolan, M., Gross, A. R., Peloso, P. M., Roberts, J., Graham, N., Goldsmith, C. H., Burnie, S. J., Haines, T., & Cervical Overview Group. (2011a). Botulinum toxin intramuscular injections for neck pain: A systematic review and metaanalysis. The Journal of Rheumatology, 38(2), 203–214.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langevin, P., Peloso, P. M., Lowcock, J., Nolan, M., Weber, J., Gross, A., Roberts, J., Goldsmith, C. H., Graham, N., Burnie, S. J., & Haines, T. (2011b). Botulinum toxin intramuscular injections for neck pain. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 6(7), CD008626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leyden, J. E., Moss, A. C., & MacMathuna, P. (2014). Endoscopic pneumatic dilation versus botulinum toxin injection in the management of primary achalasia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2014, Cd005046.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, W., & Tang, M. (2020). Application of botulinum toxin in pregnancy and its impact on female reproductive health. Expert Opinion on Drug Safety, 19(1), 83–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, S., Lian, Y. J., Chen, Y., Zhang, H. F., Ma, Y. Q., He, C. H., Wu, C. J., Xie, N. C., Zheng, Y. K., & Zhang, Y. (2014). Therapeutic effect of botulinum toxin-A in 88 patients with trigeminal neuralgia with 14-month follow-up. The Journal of Headache and Pain, 15(1), 43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lippert-Gruner, M., & Svestkova, O. (2011). Early use of Xeomin neurotoxin for local anti-spasticity therapy for pes equines after acquired brain injury (ABI). Brain Injury, 25(12), 1266–1269.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lotia, M., & Jankovic, J. (2016). Botulinum toxin for the treatment of tremor and tics. Seminars in Neurology, 36, 54–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, D. W., & Lippitz, J. (2009). Complications of botulinum neurotoxin. Disease-a-Month, 55, 198–211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lungu, C., Karp, B. I., Alter, K., Zolbrod, R., & Hallett, M. (2011). Long-term follow-up of botulinum toxin therapy for focal hand dystonia: Outcome at 10 years or more. Movement Disorders, 26(4), 750–753.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Maanum, G., Jahnsen, R., Stanghelle, J. K., Sandvik, L., & Keller, A. (2011). Effects of botulinum toxin A in ambulant adults with spastic cerebral palsy: A randomized double-blind placebo controlled-trial. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 43, 338–347.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Machado, D., Kumar, A., & Jabbari, B. (2016). Abobotulinum toxin A in the treatment of chronic low back pain. Toxins, Basel, 8(12), 374.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mall, V., Heinen, F., Siebel, A., Bertram, C., Hafkemeyer, U., Wissel, J., Berweck, S., Haverkamp, F., Nass, G., Döderlein, L., Breitbach-Faller, N., Schulte-Mattler, W., & Korinthenberg, R. (2006). Treatment of adductor spasticity with BTX-A in children with CP: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 48, 10–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marchese, M. R., D’Alatri, L., Bentivoglio, A. R., & Paludetti, G. (2018). OnabotulinumtoxinA for adductor spasmodic dysphonia (ADSD): Functional results and the role of dosage. Toxicon, 155, 38–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marciniak, C. M., Harvey, R. L., Gagnon, C. M., Duraski, S. A., Denby, F. A., McCarty, S., Bravi, L. A., Polo, K. M., & Fierstein, K. M. (2012). Does botulinum toxin type A decrease pain and lessen disability in hemiplegic survivors of stroke with shoulder pain and spasticity? A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 91, 1007–1019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maria, G., Cadeddu, F., Brandara, F., Marniga, G., & Brisinda, G. (2006). Experience with type A botulinum toxin for treatment of outlet-type constipation. The American Journal of Gastroenterology, 101, 2570–2575.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marion, M. H., Afors, K., & Sheehy, M. P. (2003). Problems of treating writer’s cramp with botulinum toxin injections: Results from 10 years of experience. Review of Neurology (Paris), 159(10 Pt 1), 923–927.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marras, C., Andrews, D., Sime, E., & Lang, A. E. (2001). Botulinum toxin for simple motor tics: A randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial. Neurology, 56, 605–610.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matak, I., & Lacković, Z. (2014). Botulinum toxin A, brain and pain. Progress in Neurobiology, 119-120, 39–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathers, S. E., Kempster, P. A., Swash, M., & Lees, A. J. (1988). Constipation and paradoxical puborectalis contraction in anismus and Parkinson’s disease: A dystonic phenomenon? Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 51, 1503–1507.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mathew, N. T., Frishberg, B. M., Gawel, M., Dimitrova, R., Gibson, J., Turkel, C., & BOTOX CDH Study Group. (2005). Botulinum toxin type A (BOTOX) for the prophylactic treatment of chronic daily headache: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Headache, 45, 293–307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocchio, R., & Caleo, M. (2015). More than at the neuromuscular synapse: Actions of botulinum neurotoxin A in the central nervous system. The Neuroscientist, 21(1), 44–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McConaghy, J. R., & Fosselman, D. (2018). Hyperhidrosis: Management options. American Family Physician, 97(11), 729–734.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mejia, N. I., Vuong, K. D., & Jankovic, J. (2005). Long-term botulinum toxin efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity. Movement Disorders, 20, 592–597.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendes, J. G., Natour, J., Nunes-Tamashiro, J. C., Toffolo, S. R., Rosenfeld, A., & Furtado, R. N. V. (2019). Comparison between intra-articular botulinum toxin type A, corticosteroid, and saline in knee osteoarthritis: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation, 33(6), 1015–1026.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, R., Bahroo, L., & Pagan, F. (2015). An update on the use of botulinum toxin therapy in Parkinson’s disease. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 15(1), 511.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mittal, S. O., Machado, D., Richardson, D., Dubey, D., & Jabbari, B. (2017). Botulinum toxin in Parkinson disease tremor. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study with a customized injection approach. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 92(9), 1359–1367.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mittal, S. O., Machado, D., Richardson, D., Dubey, D., & Jabbari, B. (2018a). Botulinum toxin in essential hand tremor – A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study with customized injection approach. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 56, 65–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mittal, S. O., Machado, D., Richardson, D., Dubey, D., & Jabbari, B. (2018b). Botulinum toxin in restless legs syndrome – A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study. Toxins (Basel), 10(10), 401.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mittal, S. O., Lenka, A., & Jankovic, J. (2019). Botulinum toxin for the treatment of tremor. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 63, 31–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohee, A., Khan, A., Harris, N., & Eardley, I. (2013). Long-term outcome of the use of intravesical botulinum toxin for the treatment of overactive bladder (OAB). BJU International, 111(1), 106–113.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Møller, E., Karlsborg, M., Bardow, A., Lykkeaa, J., Nissen, F. H., & Bakke, M. (2011). Treatment of severe drooling with botulinum toxin in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinson’s disease: Efficacy and possible mechanisms. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica, 69(3), 151–157.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Molloy, F. M., Shill, H. A., Kaelin-Lang, A., & Karp, B. I. (2002). Accuracy of muscle localization without EMG: Implications for treatment of limb dystonia. Neurology, 58(5), 805–807.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moscovich, M., Chen, Z. P., & Rodriguez, R. (2015). Successful treatment of open jaw and jaw deviation dystonia with botulinum toxin using a simple intraoral approach. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 22(3), 594–596.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Najafi, S., Sanati, E., Khademi, M., Abdorrazaghi, F., Mofrad, R. K., & Rezasoltani, Z. (2019). Intra-articular botulinum toxin type A for treatment of knee osteoarthritis: Clinical trial. Toxicon, 165, 69–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nastasi, L., Mostile, G., Nicoletti, A., Zappia, M., Reggio, E., & Catania, S. (2016). Effect of botulinum toxin treatment on quality of life in patients with isolated lingual dystonia and oromandibular dystonia affecting the tongue. Journal of Neurology, 263(9), 1702–1708.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naumann, M., & Jankovic, J. (2004). Safety of botulinum toxin type A: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 20, 981–990.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naumann, M., Zellner, M., Toyka, K. V., & Reiners, K. (1997). Treatment of gustatory sweating with botulinum toxin. Annals of Neurology, 42, 973–975.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naumann, M., Albanese, A., Heinen, F., Molenaers, G., & Relja, M. (2006). Safety and efficacy of botulinum toxin type A following long-term use. European Journal of Neurology, 13(Suppl 4), 35–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naumann, M., So, Y., Argoff, C. E., Childers, M. K., Dykstra, D. D., Gronseth, G. S., Jabbari, B., Kaufmann, H. C., Schurch, B., Silberstein, S. D., Simpson, D. M., & Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. (2008). Assessment: Botulinum neurotoxin in the treatment of autonomic disorders and pain (an evidence-based review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology, 70, 1707–1714.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naumann, M., Carruthers, A., Carruthers, J., Aurora, S. K., Zafonte, R., Abu-Shakra, S., Boodhoo, T., Miller-Messana, M. A., Demos, G., James, L., Beddingfield, F., VanDenburgh, A., Chapman, M. A., & Brin, M. F. (2010). Meta-analysis of neutralizing antibody conversion with onabotulinumtoxin A (BOTOX®) across multiple indications. Movement Disorders, 25, 2211–2218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naumann, M., Dressler, D., Hallett, M., Jankovic, J., Schiavo, G., Segal, K. R., & Truong, D. (2013a). Evidence-based review and assessment of botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of secretory disorders. Toxicon, 67, 141–152.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naumann, M., Boo, L. M., Ackerman, A. H., & Gallagher, C. J. (2013b). Immunogenicity of botulinum toxins. Journal of Neural Transmission, 120, 275–290.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niemann, N., & Jankovic, J. (2018). Botulinum toxin for the treatment of hand tremor. Toxins, 10(7), 299.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nitti, V. W., Dmochowski, R., Herschorn, S., Sand, P., Thompson, C., Nardo, C., Yan, X., Haag-Molkenteller, C., & EMBARK Study Group. (2017). OnabotulinumtoxinA for the treatment of patients with overactive bladder and urinary incontinence: Results of a phase 3, randomized, placebo controlled trial. The Journal of Urology, 197(2S), S216–S223.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nóbrega, A. C., Rodrigues, B., & Melo, A. (2009). Does botulinum toxin injection in parotid glands interfere with the swallowing dynamics of Parkinson’s disease patients? Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 111, 430–432.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolte, D., Gollmitzer, I., Loeffelbein, D. J., Hölzle, F., & Wolff, K. D. (2004). Botulinum toxin for treatment of gustatory sweating. A prospective randomized study. Mund Kiefer Gesichtschir, 8, 369–375.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nüssgens, Z., & Roggenkämper, P. (1997). Comparison of two botulinum-toxin preparations in the treatment of essential blepharospasm. Graefe’s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, 235, 197–199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okuzumi, A., Kurosawa, M., Hatano, T., Takanashi, M., Nojiri, S., Fukuhara, T., Yamanaka, T., Miyazaki, H., Yoshinaga, S., Furukawa, Y., Shimogori, T., Hattori, N., & Nukina, N. (2018). Rapid dissemination of alpha-synuclein seeds through neural circuits in an in-vivo prion-like seeding experiment. Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 6(1), 96.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olesen, J., Bousser, M. G., Diener, H. C., Dodick, D., First, M., Goadsby, P. J., Göbel, H., Lainez, M. J., Lance, J. W., Lipton, R. B., Nappi, G., Sakai, F., Schoenen, J., Silberstein, S. D., Steiner, T. J., & Headache Classification Committee. (2006). New appendix criteria open for a broader concept of chronic migraine. Cephalalgia, 26, 742–746.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ondo, W. G., Simmons, J. H., Shahid, M. H., Hashem, V., Hunter, C., & Jankovic, J. (2018). Onabotulinum toxin-A injections for sleep bruxism: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology, 90(7), e559–e564.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozzello, D. J., & Giacometti, J. N. (2018). Botulinum toxins for treating essential blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. International Ophthalmology Clinics, 58(1), 49–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pappert, E. J., Germanson, T., & Myobloc/Neurobloc European Cervical Dystonia Study Group. (2008). Botulinum toxin type B vs. type A in toxin-naive patients with cervical dystonia: Randomized, double-blind, noninferiority trial. Movement Disorders, 23, 510–517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pathak, M. S., Nguyen, H., Graham, H. K., & Moore, A. P. (2006). Management of spasticity in adults: Practical application of botulinum toxin. European Journal of Neurology, 13(Suppl 1), 42–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pedrero-Escalas, M. F., García-López, I., Santiago-Pérez, S., Vivancos, F., & Gavilán, J. (2019). Clinical experience with patients with spasmodic dysphonia and primary Meige syndrome. Acta Otorrinolaringológica Española, 70(1), 1–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterlein, C. D., Funk, J. F., Heolscher, A., Schuh, A., & Placzek, R. (2012). Is botulinum toxin A effective for the treatment of plantar fasciitis? The Clinical Journal of Pain, 28, 527–533.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petracca, M., Guidubaldi, A., Ricciardi, L., Ialongo, T., Del Grande, A., Mulas, D., Di Stasio, E., & Bentivoglio, A. R. (2015). Botulinum toxin A and B in sialorrhea: Long-term data and literature overview. Toxicon, 107, 129–140.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Picelli, A., Tamburin, S., Bonetti, P., Fontana, C., Barausse, M., Dambruoso, F., Gajofatto, F., Santilli, V., & Smania, N. (2012). Botulinum toxin type A injection into the gastrocnemius muscle for spastic equinus in adults with stroke: A randomized controlled trial comparing manual needle placement, electrical stimulation and ultrasonography-guided injection techniques. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 91, 957–964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pirazzini, M., Rossetto, O., Eleopra, R., & Montecucco, C. (2017). Botulinum neurotoxins: Biology, pharmacology, and toxicology. Pharmacological Reviews, 69(2), 200–235.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ploumis, A., Varvarousis, D., Konitsiotis, S., & Beris, A. (2014). Effectiveness of botulinum toxin injection with and without needle electromyographic guidance for the treatment of spasticity in hemiplegic patients: A randomized controlled trial. Disability and Rehabilitation, 36(4), 313–318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prager, W., Wissmüller, E., Kollhorst, B., Böer, A., & Zschocke, I. (2011). Treatment of crow’s feet with two different botulinum toxin type A preparations in split-face technique. Hautarzt, 62(5), 375–379.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quagliato, E. M., Carelli, E. F., & Viana, M. A. (2010a). Prospective, randomized, double-blind study, comparing botulinum toxins type a Botox and Prosigne for blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm treatment. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 33(1), 27–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quagliato, E. M., Carelli, E. F., & Viana, M. A. (2010b). A prospective, randomized, double-blind study comparing the efficacy and safety of type a botulinum toxins Botox and Prosigne in the treatment of cervical dystonia. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 33(1), 22–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rajkumar, G. N., Small, D. R., Mustafa, A. W., & Conn, G. (2005). A prospective study to evaluate the safety, tolerability, efficacy and durability of response of intravesical injection of botulinum toxin type A into detrusor muscle in patients with refractory idiopathic detrusor overactivity. BJU International, 96, 848–852.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez-Castaneda, J., Jankovic, J., Comella, C., Dashtipour, K., Fernandez, H. H., & Mari, Z. (2013). Diffusion, spread, and migration of botulinum toxin. Movement Disorders, 28(13), 1775–1783.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ranoux, D., Gury, C., Fondarai, J., Mas, J. L., & Zuber, M. (2002). Respective potencies of Botox and Dysport: A double blind, randomised, crossover study in cervical dystonia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 72(4), 459–462.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ranoux, D., Attal, N., Morain, F., & Bouhassira, D. (2008). Botulinum toxin type A induces direct analgesic effects in chronic neuropathic pain. Annals of Neurology, 64, 274–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rappl, T., Parvizi, D., Friedl, H., Wiedner, M., May, S., Kranzelbinder, B., Wurzer, P., & Hellbom, B. (2013). Onset and duration of effect of incobotulinumtoxin A, onabotulinumtoxin A, and abobotulinumtoxin A in the treatment of glabellar frown lines: A randomized, double-blind study. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology, 6, 211–219.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rath, J. J., Tavy, D. L., Wertenbroek, A. A., van Woerkom, T. C., & de Bruijn, S. F. (2010). Botulinum toxin type A in simple motor tics: Short-term and long-term treatment effects. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 16(7), 478–481.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Relja, M., Poole, A. C., Schoenen, J., Pascual, J., Lei, X., Thompson, C., & European BoNTA Headache Study Group. (2007). A multicentre, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of multiple treatments of botulinum toxin type A (BoNTA) for the prophylaxis of episodic migraine headaches. Cephalalgia, 27, 492–503.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rieu, I., Degos, B., Castelnovo, G., Vial, C., Durand, E., Pereira, B., Simonetta-Moreau, M., Sangla, S., Fluchère, F., Guehl, D., Burbaud, P., Geny, C., Gayraud, D., Ory-Magne, F., Bouhour, F., Llinares, E., Derost, P., Marques, A., & Durif, F. (2018). Incobotulinum toxin A in Parkinson’s disease with foot dystonia: A double blind randomized trial. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 46, 9–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, R. L., & Fernandez, H. H. (2013). Sustained benefit of painful legs moving toes syndrome with botulinum toxin type A. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 20(7), 1031–1032.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roggenkämper, P., Jost, W. H., Bihari, K., Comes, G., Grafe, S., & for the NT 201 Blepharospasm Study Team. (2006). Efficacy and safety of a new botulinum toxin type A free of complexing proteins in the treatment of blepharospasm. Journal of Neural Transmission, 113, 303–312.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ron, Y., Avni, Y., Lukovetski, A., Wardi, J., Geva, D., Birkenfeld, S., & Halpern, Z. (2001). Botulinum toxin type-A in therapy of patients with anismus. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum, 44, 1821–1826.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosales, R. L., & Dressler, D. (2010). On muscle spindles, dystonia and botulinum toxin. European Journal of Neurology, 17(Suppl 1), 71–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosales, R. L., Kong, K. H., Goh, K. J., Kumthornthip, W., Mok, V. C., Delgado-De Los Santos, M. M., Chua, K. S., Abdullah, S. J., Zakine, B., Maisonobe, P., Magis, A., & Wong, K. S. (2012). Botulinum toxin injection for hypertonicity of the upper extremity within 12 weeks after stroke: A randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 26, 812–821.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosales, R. L., Efendy, F., Teleg, E. S., Delos Santos, M. M., Rosales, M. C., Ostrea, M., Tanglao, M. J., & Ng, A. R. (2016). Botulinum toxin as early intervention for spasticity after stroke or non-progressive brain lesion: A meta-analysis. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 371, 6–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rovner, E., Kennelly, M., Schulte-Baukloh, H., Zhou, J., Haag-Molkenteller, C., & Dasgupta, P. (2011). Urodynamic results and clinical outcomes with intradetrusor injections of onabotulinumtoxin A in a randomized, placebo-controlled dose-finding study in idiopathic overactive bladder. Neurourology and Urodynamics, 30, 556–562.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rystedt, A., Zetterberg, L., Burman, J., Nyholm, D., & Johansson, A. (2015). A comparison of Botox 100 U/mL and Dysport 100 U/mL using dose conversion ratio 1: 3 and 1: 1.7 in the treatment of cervical dystonia: A double-blind, randomized, crossover trial. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 38, 170–176.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saad, J., & Gourdeau, A. (2014). A direct comparison of onabotulinumtoxin A (Botox) and incobotulinumtoxin A (Xeomin) in the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm: A split-face technique. Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology, 34, 233–236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sadick, N. (2003). Botulinum toxin type B. Dermatologic Surgery, 29, 348–350.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Safarpour, Y., & Jabbari, B. (2018). Botulinum toxin treatment of pain syndromes -an evidence based review. Toxicon, 147, 120–128.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sahebally, S. M., Meshkat, B., Walsh, S. R., & Beddy, D. (2018). Botulinum toxin injection vs topical nitrates for chronic anal fissure: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Colorectal Disease, 20(1), 6–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samizadeh, S., & De Boulle, K. (2018). Botulinum neurotoxin formulations: Overcoming the confusion. Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology, 11, 273–287.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Samotus, O., Lee, J., & Jog, M. (2017). Long-term tremor therapy for Parkinson and essential tremor with sensor-guided botulinum toxin type A injections. PLoS One, 12(6), e0178670.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samotus, O., Lee, J., & Jog, M. (2018). Personalized botulinum toxin type A therapy for cervical dystonia based on kinematic guidance. Journal of Neurology, 265(6), 1269–1278.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sampaio, C., Ferreira, J. J., Simões, F., Rosas, M. J., Magalhães, M., Correia, A. P., Bastos-Lima, A., Martins, R., & Castro-Caldas, A. (1997). DYSBOT: A single-blind, randomized parallel study to determine whether any differences can be detected in the efficacy and tolerability of two formulations of botulinum toxin type A—Dysport and Botox—Assuming a ratio of 4:1. Movement Disorders, 12, 1013–1018.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sane, S., Ali, M. J., & Naik, M. N. (2019). Comparison of safety and efficacy of Botox and Neuronox in the management of benign essential blepharospasm: A split-face study. Korean Journal of Ophthalmology, 33(5), 430–435.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sankhla, C., Jankovic, J., & Duane, D. (1998a). Variability of the immunologic and clinical response in dystonic patients immunoresistant to botulinum toxin injections. Movement Disorders, 13, 150–154.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sankhla, C., Lai, E. C., & Jankovic, J. (1998b). Peripherally induced oromandibular dystonia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 65, 722–728.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Saper, J. R., Mathew, N. T., Loder, E. W., DeGryse, R., VanDenburgh, A. M., & BoNTA-009 Study Group. (2007). A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled comparison of botulinum toxin type A injection sites and doses in the prevention of episodic migraine. Pain Medicine, 8, 478–485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schasfoort, F., Pangalila, R., Sneekes, E. M., Catsman, C., Becher, J., Horemans, H., Stam, H. J., Dallmeijer, A. J., & Bussmann, J. B. J. (2018). Intramuscular botulinum toxin prior to comprehensive rehabilitation has no added value for improving motor impairments, gait kinematics and goal attainment in walking children with spastic cerebral palsy. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 50(8), 732–742.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, S. A., Edwards, M. J., Cordivari, C., Macleod, W. N., & Bhatia, K. P. (2006). Botulinum toxin A may be efficacious as treatment for jaw tremor in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 21, 1722–1724.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuele, S., Jabusch, H. C., Lederman, R. J., & Altenmüller, E. (2005). Botulinum toxin injections in the treatment of musician’s dystonia. Neurology, 64(2), 341–343.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shafik, A., & El-Sibai, O. (1998). Botulin toxin in the treatment of nonrelaxing puborectalis syndrome. Digestive Surgery, 15, 347–351.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shehata, H. S., El-Tamawy, M. S., Shalaby, N. M., & Ramzy, G. (2013). Botulinum toxin-type A: Could it be an effective treatment option in intractable trigeminal neuralgia? The Journal of Headache and Pain, 14, 92.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simonetta Moreau, M., Cauhepe, C., Magues, J. P., & Senard, J. M. (2003). A double-blind, randomized, comparative study of Dysport vs. Botox in primary palmar hyperhidrosis. The British Journal of Dermatology, 149, 1041–1045.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, D. M., Gracies, J. M., Graham, H. K., Miyasaki, J. M., Naumann, M., Russman, B., Simpson, L. L., So, Y., & Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. (2008). Assessment: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of spasticity (an evidence-based review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology, 70, 1691–1698.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, D. M., Hallett, M., Ashman, E. J., Comella, C. L., Green, M. W., Gronseth, G. S., Armstrong, M. J., Gloss, D., Potrebic, S., Jankovic, J., Karp, B. P., Naumann, M., So, Y. T., & Yablon, S. A. (2016). Practice guideline update summary: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of blepharospasm, cervical dystonia, adult spasticity, and headache: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology, 86(19), 1818–1826.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, B. J., Silbert, P. L., Song, S., Dunne, J. W., & Singer, K. P. (2011). Treatment of refractory anterior knee pain using botulinum toxin type A (Dysport) injection to the distal vastus lateralis muscle: A randomised placebo controlled crossover trial. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 45(8), 640–645.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snow, B. J., Tsui, J. K., Bhatt, M. H., Varelas, M., Hashimoto, S. A., & Calne, D. B. (1990). Treatment of spasticity with botulinum toxin: A double-blind study. Annals of Neurology, 28, 512–515.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, J. C. (2005). Practical manual of physical medicine and rehabilitation (p. 507). Elsevier Mosby.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tassorelli, C., De Icco, R., Alfonsi, E., Bartolo, M., Serrao, M., Avenali, M., De Paoli, I., Conte, C., Pozzi, N. G., Bramanti, P., Nappi, G., & Sandrini, G. (2014). Botulinum toxin type A potentiates the effect of neuromotor rehabilitation of Pisa syndrome in Parkinson disease: A placebo controlled study. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 20, 1140–1144.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tintner, R., Gross, R., Winzer, U. F., Smalky, K. A., & Jankovic, J. (2005). Autonomic function after botulinum toxin type A or B: A double-blind, randomized trial. Neurology, 65, 765–767.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trosch, R. M., Adler, C. H., & Pappert, E. J. (2007). Botulinum toxin type B (Myobloc) in subjects with hemifacial spasm: Results from an open-label, dose-escalation safety study. Movement Disorders, 22, 1258–1264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Truong, D. (2012). Botulinum toxins in the treatment of primary focal dystonias. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 316(1–2), 9–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Truong, D., Duane, D. D., Jankovic, J., Singer, C., Seeberger, L. C., Comella, C. L., Lew, M. F., Rodnitzky, R. L., Danisi, F. O., Sutton, J. P., Charles, P. D., Hauser, R. A., & Sheean, G. L. (2005). Efficacy and safety of botulinum type A toxin (Dysport) in cervical dystonia: Results of the first US randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Movement Disorders, 20(7), 783–791.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Truong, D., Comella, C., Fernandez, H. H., Ondo, W. G., & Dysport Benign Essential Blepharospasm Study Group. (2008a). Efficacy and safety of purified botulinum toxin type A (Dysport) for the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm: A randomized, placebo-controlled, phase II trial. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 14950, 407–414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Truong, D., Lew, M., & Orlova, O. (2008b). Efficacy of Dysport (botulinum toxin type A) for the treatment of cervical dystonia: A multicenter, randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled phase III study. Toxicon, 51, 37–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Truong, D., Brodsky, M., Lew, M., Brashear, A., Jankovic, J., Molho, E., Orlova, O., Timerbaeva, S., & Global Dysport Cervical Dystonia Study Group. (2010). Long-term efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A (Dysport) in cervical dystonia. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 16(5), 316–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Truong, D. D., Gollomp, S. M., Jankovic, J., PA, L. W., Marx, M., Hanschmann, A., Fernandez, H. H., & Xeomin US Blepharospasm Study Group. (2013). Sustained efficacy and safety of repeated incobotulinumtoxin A (Xeomin(®)) injections in blepharospasm. Journal of Neural Transmission, 120, 1345–1353.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, J. K., Eisen, A., Stoessl, A. J., Calne, S., & Calne, D. B. (1986). Double-blind study of botulinum toxin in spasmodic torticollis. Lancet, 2, 245–247.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, J. K., Bhatt, M., Calne, S., & Calne, D. B. (1993). Botulinum toxin in the treatment of writer’s cramp: A double-blind study. Neurology, 43, 183–185.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unal, M., Sevim, S., Doğu, O., Vayisoğlu, Y., & Kanik, A. (2003). Effect of botulinum toxin type A on nasal symptoms in patients with allergic rhinitis: A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 123(9), 1060–1063.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Upile, T., Elmiyeh, B., Jerjes, W., Prasad, V., Kafas, P., Abiola, J., Youl, B., Epstein, R., Hopper, C., Sudhoff, H., & Rubin, J. (2009). Unilateral versus bilateral thyroarytenoid botulinum toxin injections in adductor spasmodic dysphonia: A prospective study. Head & Face Medicine, 5, 20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Der Walt, A., Sung, S., Spelman, T., Marriott, M., Kolbe, S., Mitchell, P., Andrew, E., & Butzkueven, H. (2012). A double-blind, randomized, controlled study of botulinum toxin type A in MS-related tremor. Neurology, 79, 92–99.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Esch, B. F., Wegner, I., Stegeman, I., & Grolman, W. (2017). Effect of botulinum toxin and surgery among spasmodic dysphonia patients. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, 156(2), 238–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Hoeij, F. B., Tack, J. F., Pandolfino, J. E., Sternbach, J. M., Roman, S., Smout, A. J., & Bredenoord, A. J. (2017). Complications of botulinum toxin injections for treatment of esophageal motility disorders dagger. Diseases of the Esophagus, 30, 1–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vanek, Z., & Jankovic, J. (2001). Dystonia in corticobasal degeneration. Movement Disorders, 16(2), 252–257.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Coelln, R., Raible, A., Gasser, T., & Asmus, F. (2008). Ultrasound-guided injection of the iliopsoas muscle with botulinum toxin in camptocormia. Movement Disorders, 23(6), 889–892. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.21967. PMID: 18307265.

  • Wabbels, B., Reichel, G., Fulford-Smith, A., Wright, N., & Roggenkämper, P. (2011). Double-blind, randomised, parallel group pilot study comparing two botulinum toxin type A products for the treatment of blepharospasm. Journal of Neural Transmission, 118, 233–239.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walter, U., & Dressler, D. (2014). Ultrasound-guided botulinum toxin injections in neurology: Technique, indications and future perspectives. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 14, 923–936.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wan, X. H., Vuong, K. D., & Jankovic, J. (2005). Clinical application of botulinum toxin type B in movement disorders and autonomic symptoms. Chinese Medical Sciences Journal, 20, 44–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C. C., Liao, C. H., & Kuo, H. C. (2014). Diabetes mellitus does not affect the efficacy and safety of intravesical onabotulinumtoxin A injection in patients with refractory detrusor overactivity. Neurourology and Urodynamics, 33, 1235–1239.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, A. B., Wissel, J., Borg, J., Ertzgaard, P., Herrmann, C., Kulkarni, J., Lindgren, K., Reuter, I., Sakel, M., Säterö, P., Sharma, S., Wein, T., Wright, N., Fulford-Smith, A., & BEST Study Group. (2014). Functional goal achievement in post-stroke spasticity patients: The BOTOX Economic Spasticity Trial (BEST). Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 46, 504–513.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waseem, Z., Boulias, C., Gordon, A., Ismail, F., Sheean, G., & Furlan, A. D. (2011). Botulinum toxin injections for low-back pain and sciatica. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2011(1), CD008257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werdelin, L., Dalager, T., Fuglsang-Frederiksen, A., Regeur, L., Karlsborg, M., Korbo, L., Munck, O., & Winge, K. (2011). The utility of EMG interference pattern analysis in botulinum toxin treatment of torticollis: A randomised, controlled and blinded study. Clinical Neurophysiology, 122(11), 2305–2309.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wijemanne, S., & Jimenez-Shahed, J. (2014). Improvement in dystonic camptocormia following botulinum toxin injection to the external oblique muscle. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders, 20(10), 1106–1107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilken, B., Aslami, B., & Backes, H. (2008). Successful treatment of drooling in children with neurological disorders with botulinum toxin A or B. Neuropediatrics, 39, 200–204.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wissel, J., Masuhr, F., Schelosky, L., Ebersbach, G., & Poewe, W. (1997). Quantitative assessment of botulinum toxin treatment in 43 patients with head tremor. Movement Disorders, 12, 722–726.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wissel, J., Heinen, F., Schenkel, A., Doll, B., Ebersbach, G., Müller, J., & Poewe, W. (1999). Botulinum toxin A in the management of spastic gait disorders in children and young adults with cerebral palsy: A randomized, double-blind study of high-dose versus low-dose treatment. Neuropediatrics, 30(3), 120–124.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wissel, J., Bensmail, D., Ferreira, J. J., Molteni, F., Satkunam, L., Moraleda, S., Rekand, T., McGuire, J., Scheschonka, A., Flatau-Baqué, B., Simon, O., Rochford, E. T., Dressler, D., Simpson, D. M., & TOWER Study Investigators. (2017). Safety and efficacy of incobotulinumtoxin A doses up to 800 U in limb spasticity. The TOWER study. Neurology, 88, 1321–1328.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, H., Sultana, R., Taylor, K. B., & Szabo, A. (2012). A prospective randomized double-blinded pilot study to examine the effect of botulinum toxin type A injection versus Lidocaine/Depomedrol injection on residual and phantom limb pain: Initial report. The Clinical Journal of Pain, 28, 108–112.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, C., Xue, F., Chang, W., Lian, Y., Zheng, Y., Xie, N., Zhang, L., & Chen, C. (2016). Botulinum toxin type A with or without needle electromyographic guidance in patients with cervical dystonia. Springerplus, 5(1), 1292.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao, L., Mackey, S., Hui, H., Xong, D., Zhang, Q., & Zhang, D. (2010). Subcutaneous injection of botulinum toxin A is beneficial in postherpetic neuralgia. Pain Medicine, 11, 1827–1833.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yablon, S. A., Brin, M. F., VanDenburgh, A. M., Zhou, J., Garabedian-Ruffalo, S. M., Abu-Shakra, S., & Beddingfield, F. C., 3rd. (2011). Dose response with onabotulinumtoxin A for post-stroke spasticity: A pooled data analysis. Movement Disorders, 26(2), 209–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yaltho, T. C., & Jankovic, J. (2011). The many faces of hemifacial spasm: Differential diagnosis of unilateral facial spasms. Movement Disorders, 26(9), 1582–1592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamauchi, P. S., & Lowe, N. J. (2004). Botulinum toxin types A and B: Comparison of efficacy, duration, and dose-ranging studies for the treatment of facial rhytides and hyperhidrosis. Clinics in Dermatology, 22(1), 34–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, T. Y., Jung, Y. G., Kim, Y. H., & Jang, T. Y. (2008). A comparison of the effects of botulinum toxin A and steroid injection on nasal allergy. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, 139(3), 367–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yiannakopoulou, E. (2012). Botulinum toxin and anal fissure: Efficacy and safety systematic review. International Journal of Colorectal Disease, 27(1), 1–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida, K. (2019). Botulinum neurotoxin therapy for lingual dystonia using an individualized injection method based on clinical features. Toxins, 11, 51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshimura, D. M., Aminoff, M. J., Tami, T. A., & Scott, A. B. (1992). Treatment of hemifacial spasm with botulinum toxin. Muscle & Nerve, 15, 1045–1049.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, R. Y., Sheu, J. J., Yu, J. M., Chen, W. T., Tseng, I. J., Chang, H. H., & Hu, C. J. (2009). Botulinum toxin for diabetic neuropathic pain: A randomized double-blind crossover trial. Neurology, 72, 1473–1478.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yun, J. Y., Kim, J. W., Kim, H. T., Chung, S. J., Kim, J. M., Cho, J. W., Lee, J. Y., Lee, H. N., You, S., Oh, E., Jeong, H., Kim, Y. E., Kim, H. J., Lee, W. Y., & Jeon, B. S. (2015). Dysport and Botox at a ratio of 2.5:1 units in cervical dystonia: A double-blind, randomized study. Movement Disorders, 30(2), 206–213.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zaninotto, G., Bennett, C., Boeckxstaens, G., Costantini, M., Ferguson, M. K., Pandolfino, J. E., Patti, M. G., Ribeiro, U., Jr., Richter, J., Swanstrom, L., Tack, J., Triadafilopoulos, G., Markar, S. R., Salvador, R., Faccio, L., Andreollo, N. A., Cecconello, I., Costamagna, G., da Rocha, J. R. M., … Low, D. E. (2018). The 2018 ISDE achalasia guidelines. Diseases of the Esophagus, 31(9), 1–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhai, S., Huang, B., & Yu, K. (2019). The efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A in painful knee osteoarthritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of International Medical Research, 48(4), 300060519895868.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, T., Adatia, A., Zarin, W., Moitri, M., Vijenthira, A., Chu, R., Thabane, L., & Kean, W. (2011). The efficacy of botulinum toxin type A in managing chronic musculoskeletal pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Inflammopharmacology, 19(1), 21–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, H., Lian, Y., Ma, Y., Chen, Y., He, C., Xie, N., & Wu, C. (2014a). Two doses of botulinum toxin type A for the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia: Observation of therapeutic effect from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Journal of Headache and Pain, 15(1), 65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., Wang, Z. N., He, L., Gao, G., Zhai, Q., Yin, Z. T., & Zeng, X. D. (2014b). Botulinum toxin type-A injection to treat patients with intractable anismus unresponsive to simple biofeedback training. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 20, 12602–12607.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, E. Z., Tan, S., & Loh, I. (2017). Botulinum toxin in rhinitis: Literature review and posterior nasal injection in allergic rhinitis. Laryngoscope, 127(11), 2447–2454.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. UT Move, Department of Neurology, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston-McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA

    Raja Mehanna

  2. Department of Neurology, Parkinson’s Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA

    Joseph Jankovic

Authors
  1. Raja Mehanna
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joseph Jankovic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joseph Jankovic .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biomedical Sciences, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA

    Richard M. Kostrzewa

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Mehanna, R., Jankovic, J. (2021). Botulinum Neurotoxins as a Therapeutic. In: Kostrzewa, R.M. (eds) Handbook of Neurotoxicity. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71519-9_169-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71519-9_169-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-71519-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-71519-9

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Biomedicine and Life SciencesReference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation