Abstract
Chlorinated organic compounds (COCs) are common anthropogenic contaminants encountered in soil and groundwater. COCs were industrially produced for different applications, such as dry cleaning, degreasing, or as pesticides. The presence of COCs in the environment is a major concern because of their toxicity and persistence.
The most widely used method for their removal is the conventional pump-and-treat approach. However, this technology can hardly achieve a complete remediation because of geological characteristics and the presence of pore space pollution/adsorbed pollution, leading to a residual saturation. Hence, in addition to the improvement of pump-and-treat systems, In situ chemical processes have been largely developed. These chemical processes involve the injection of chemical reagents for the removal of residual pollution source and/or the treatment of contamination plume.
Chemical degradation of COCs can be achieved by oxidative or reductive processes. If chemical oxidation has been first developed for in situ application, chemical reduction is one of the most important emerging remediation techniques for COCs treatment. Due to the electronegative character of chlorine substituents, COCs can effectively be transformed via reductive pathways. Moreover, reductive dechlorination has shown higher efficiency on highly chlorinated compounds.
This chapter focuses on the presentation of the chemical reduction of the most common COCs pollutants, followed by kinetic and mechanistic approaches related to the use of iron-based particles. Developments of in situ chemical reduction technologies aiming to enhance remediation rates are also exposed. Influence of environmental conditions for in situ applications is then developed. Finally, a case study is presented.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abazari R, Heshmatpour F, Balalaie S (2013) Pt/Pd/Fe trimetallic nanoparticle produced via reverse micelle technique: synthesis, characterization, and its use as an efficient catalyst for reductive hydrodehalogenation of aryl and aliphatic halides under mild conditions. ACS Catal 3:139–149. https://doi.org/10.1021/cs300507a
Adeleye AS, Keller AA, Miller RJ, Lenihan HS (2013) Persistence of commercial nanoscaled zero-valent iron (nZVI) and by-products. J Nanopart Res 15:1418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-013-1418-7
Allen-King RM, Grathwohl P, Ball WP (2002) New modeling paradigms for the sorption of hydrophobic organic chemicals to heterogeneous carbonaceous matter in soils, sediments, and rocks. Adv Water Resour 25:985–1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1708(02)00045-3
Al-Shamsi MA, Thomson NR (2013) Treatment of organic compounds by activated persulfate using nanoscale zerovalent iron. Ind Eng Chem Res 52:13564–13571. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie400387p
Alvarez PJJ, Illman WA (2005a) Bioremediation and natural attenuation: process fundamentals and mathematical models. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ
Alvarez PJJ, Illman WA (2005b) Fundamentals of groundwater flow and contaminant transport processes. In: Bioremediation and natural attenuation. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp 115–167
Amir A, Lee W (2011) Enhanced reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethene by nano-sized zero valent iron with vitamin B12. Chem Eng J 170:492–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.01.048
Amonette JE (2002) Iron redox chemistry of clays and oxydes: environmental applications. In: Fitch A (ed) Electrochemical properties of clays, vol 10. The Clay Minerals Society, Aurora, CO, pp 90–147
Amonette JE, Szecsody JE, Schaef HT et al (1994) Abiotic reduction of aquifer materials by dithionite: a promising in-situ remediation technology. In: Gee GW, Wing NR (eds) In-situ remediation: scientific basis for current and future technologies, Part 2. Battelle Press, Richland, WA, pp 851–881
Amonette JE, Workman DJ, Kennedy DW et al (2000) Dechlorination of carbon tetrachloride by Fe(II) associated with goethite. Environ Sci Technol 34:4606–4613. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES9913582
Arnold WA, Roberts AL (1998) Pathways of chlorinated ethylene and chlorinated acetylene reaction with Zn(0). Environ Sci Technol 32:3017–3025. https://doi.org/10.1021/es980252o
Arnold WA, Roberts AL (2000) Pathways and kinetics of chlorinated ethylene and chlorinated acetylene reaction with Fe(0) particles. Environ Sci Technol 34:1794–1805. https://doi.org/10.1021/es990884q
Arnold WA, Ball WP, Roberts AL (1999) Polychlorinated ethane reaction with zero-valent zinc: pathways and rate control. J Contam Hydrol 40:183–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7722(99)00045-5
Arnold WA, Winget P, Cramer CJ (2002) Reductive dechlorination of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane. Environ Sci Technol 36:3536–3541. https://doi.org/10.1021/es025655+
Auffan M, Achouak W, Rose J et al (2008) Relation between the redox state of iron-based nanoparticles and their cytotoxicity toward Escherichia coli. Environ Sci Technol 42:6730–6735. https://doi.org/10.1021/es800086f
Aziz CE, Wymore RA, Steffan RJ (2013) Bioaugmentation considerations. In: Bioaugmentation for groundwater remediation. Springer, New York, NY, pp 141–169
Bae S, Hanna K (2015) Reactivity of nanoscale zero-valent iron in unbuffered systems: effect of pH and Fe(II) dissolution. Environ Sci Technol 49:10536–10543. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b01298
Baer DR, Amonette JE, Engelhard MH et al (2008) Characterization challenges for nanomaterials. Surf Interface Anal 40:529–537. https://doi.org/10.1002/sia.2726
Ballschmiter K (2003) Pattern and sources of naturally produced organohalogens in the marine environment: biogenic formation of organohalogens. Chemosphere 52:313–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00211-X
Baltruschat H, Beltowska-Brzezinska M, Dülberg A (1993) Reactions of halogenated hydrocarbons at platinum group metals. Part I: a DEMS study of the adsorption of CH3CCl3. Electrochim Acta 38:281–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4686(93)85140-T
Barbash JE, Reinhard M (1989) Abiotic dehalogenation of 1,2-dichloroethane and 1,2-dibromoethane in aqueous solution containing hydrogen sulfide. Environ Sci Technol 23:1349–1358
Basnet M, Ghoshal S, Tufenkji N (2013) Rhamnolipid biosurfactant and soy protein act as effective stabilizers in the aggregation and transport of palladium-doped zerovalent iron nanoparticles in saturated porous media. Environ Sci Technol 47:13355–13364. https://doi.org/10.1021/es402619v
Basnet M, Di TC, Ghoshal S, Tufenkji N (2015) Reduced transport potential of a palladium-doped zero valent iron nanoparticle in a water saturated loamy sand. Water Res 68:354–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WATRES.2014.09.039
Bennett P, He F, Zhao D et al (2010) In situ testing of metallic iron nanoparticle mobility and reactivity in a shallow granular aquifer. J Contam Hydrol 116:35–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2010.05.006
Bent BE (1996) Mimicking aspects of heterogeneous catalysis: generating, isolating, and reacting proposed surface intermediates on single crystals in vacuum. Chem Rev 96:1361–1390. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr940201j
Berge ND, Ramsburg CA (2009) Oil-in-water emulsions for encapsulated delivery of reactive iron particles. Environ Sci Technol 43:5060–5066. https://doi.org/10.1021/es900358p
Betelu S, Ignatiadis I (2013) Electrochemical investigation of the reductive dechlorination of perchloroethylene (PCE) by nano-sized zero valent iron (nZVI) using screen-printed electrodes (SPE). In: Proceedings of the 12th international conference on sustainable use and management of soil, sediment and water resources. Barcelona, Spain, pp 115–118
Betelu S, Rodrigues R, Noel C, et al (2015) Development and in situ implementation of a chemical process for reductive dechlorination of chlorinated solvents in polluted aquifers. Summer School on Contaminated Soils, June 29–July 3, 2015. Marne la Vallée, France
Beverskog B, Puigdomenech I (1996) Revised pourbaix diagrams for iron at 25–300°C. Corros Sci 38:2121–2135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-938X(96)00067-4
Bhattacharjee S, Ghoshal S (2018) Sulfidation of nanoscale zerovalent iron in the presence of two organic macromolecules and its effects on trichloroethene degradation. Environ Sci Nano 5:782–791. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EN01205E
Bi E, Bowen I, Devlin JF (2009) Effect of mixed anions (HCO3- - SO42- - ClO4-) on granular iron (Fe 0) reactivity. Environ Sci Technol 43:5975–5981. https://doi.org/10.1021/es900599x
Boethling RS, Mackay D (2000) Handbook of property estimation methods for chemicals: environmental and health sciences. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Borden RC (2007) Effective distribution of emulsified edible oil for enhanced anaerobic bioremediation. J Contam Hydrol 94:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2007.06.001
Bossa N, Carpenter AW, Kumar N et al (2017) Cellulose nanocrystal zero-valent iron nanocomposites for groundwater remediation. Environ Sci Nano 4:1294–1303. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EN00572A
Bouwer H (1991) Simple derivation of the retardation equation and application to preferential flow and macrodispersion. Ground Water 29:41–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1991.tb00495.x
Brown RA (2010) Chemical oxidation and reduction for chlorinated solvent remediation. In: Stroo HF, Ward CH (eds) In situ remediation of chlorinated solvent plumes. Springer, New York, NY, pp 481–535
Brown RA, Mueller JG, Seech AG et al (2009) Interactions between biological and abiotic pathways in the reduction of chlorinated solvents. Remediat J 20:9–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/rem.20226
Bruton TA, Pycke BFG, Halden RU (2015) Effect of nanoscale zero-valent iron treatment on biological reductive dechlorination: a review of current understanding and research needs. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 45:1148–1175. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2014.924185
Budavari S (1996) The Merck Index, Print Version, 12th edn. CRC Press, Whitehouse Station, NJ
Burris DR, Campbell TJ, Manoranjan VS (1995) Sorption of trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene in a batch reactive metallic iron-water system. Environ Sci Technol 29:2850–2855. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00011a022
Burris DR, Delcomyn CA, Smith MH, Roberts AL (1996) Reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene catalyzed by vitamin B12 in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Environ Sci Technol 30:3047–3052. https://doi.org/10.1021/es960116o
Burris DR, Allen-King RM, Manoranjan VS et al (1998) Chlorinated ethene reduction by cast iron: sorption and mass transfer. J Environ Eng 124:1012–1019. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1998)124:10(1012)
Busch J, Meißner T, Potthoff A et al (2015) A field investigation on transport of carbon-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) in groundwater. J Contam Hydrol 181:59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2015.03.009
Butler EC, Hayes KF (1998) Effects of solution composition and pH on the reductive dechlorination of hexachloroethane by iron sulfide. Environ Sci Technol 32:1276–1284. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES9706864
Butler EC, Hayes KF (2000) Kinetics of the transformation of halogenated aliphatic compounds by iron sulfide. Environ Sci Technol 34:422–429. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES980946X
Bylaska EJ, Dupuis M, Tratnyek PG (2008) One-electron-transfer reactions of polychlorinated ethylenes: concerted and stepwise cleavages. J Phys Chem A 112:3712–3721. https://doi.org/10.1021/JP711021D
Calvet R, Barriuso E, Bedos C et al (2005) Les pesticides dans le sol: conséquences agronomiques et environnementales. France Agricole, Paris
Cao Z, Liu X, Xu J et al (2017) Removal of antibiotic florfenicol by sulfide-modified nanoscale zero-valent iron. Environ Sci Technol 51:11269–11277. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b02480
Cecchinc I, Reddy KR, Thomé A et al (2017) Nanobioremediation: integration of nanoparticles and bioremediation for sustainable remediation of chlorinated organic contaminants in soils. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 119:419–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IBIOD.2016.09.027
Chaplin BP, Reinhard M, Schneider WF et al (2012) Critical review of Pd-based catalytic treatment of priority contaminants in water. Environ Sci Technol 46:3655–3670. https://doi.org/10.1021/es204087q
Chekli L, Brunetti G, Marzouk ER et al (2016) Evaluating the mobility of polymer-stabilised zero-walent iron nanoparticles and their potential to co-transport contaminants in intact soil cores. Environ Pollut 216:636–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.06.025
Chen J-L, Al-Abed SR, Ryan JA, Li Z (2001) Effects of pH on dechlorination of trichloroethylene by zero-valent iron. J Hazard Mater 83:243–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3894(01)00193-5
Chen S-S, Hsu H-D, Li C-W (2004) A new method to produce nanoscale iron for nitrate removal. J Nanopart Res 6:639–647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-004-6672-2
Chen J, Xiu Z, Lowry GV, Alvarez PJJ (2011) Effect of natural organic matter on toxicity and reactivity of nano-scale zero-valent iron. Water Res 45:1995–2001. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WATRES.2010.11.036
Chen F, Freedman DL, Falta RW, Murdoch LC (2012) Henry’s law constants of chlorinated solvents at elevated temperatures. Chemosphere 86:156–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.10.004
Chen W-F, Wang W, Zhang J et al (2016) Effects of co-present cations and anions on hexachlorobenzene removal by activated carbon, nano zerovalent iron and nano zerovalent/activated carbon composite. Desalin Water Treat 57:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2015.1108238
Cheng S-F, Wu S-C (2000) The enhancement methods for the degradation of TCE by zero-valent metals. Chemosphere 41:1263–1270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(99)00530-5
Chiou CT, Kile DE (1998) Deviations from sorption linearity on soils of polar and nonpolar organic compounds at low relative concentrations. Environ Sci Technol 32:338–343. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES970608G
Chiou CT, Kile DE, Brinton TI et al (1987) A comparison of water solubility enhancements of organic solutes by aquatic humic materials and commercial humic acids. Environ Sci Technol 21:1231–1234. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00165a012
Chiu WA, Jinot J, Scott CS et al (2012) Human health effects of trichloroethylene: key findings and scientific issues. Environ Health Perspect 121:303–311. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205879
Cho H-H, Park J-W (2006) Sorption and reduction of tetrachloroethylene with zero valent iron and amphiphilic molecules. Chemosphere 64:1047–1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.12.062
Choi H, Al-Abed SR, Agarwal S, Dionysiou DD (2008) Synthesis of reactive nano-Fe/Pd bimetallic system-impregnated activated carbon for the simultaneous adsorption and dechlorination of PCBs. Chem Mater 20:3649–3655. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm8003613
Coleman NV, Mattes TE, Gossett JM, Spain JC (2002) Biodegradation of cis-dichloroethene as the sole carbon source by a beta-proteobacterium. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:2726–2730
Colombano S, Saada A, Guerin V, et al (2010) Quelles techniques pour quels traitements - Analyse coûts-bénéfices.
Colombo A, Dragonetti C, Magni M, Roberto D (2015) Degradation of toxic halogenated organic compounds by iron-containing mono-, bi- and tri-metallic particles in water. Inorg Chim Acta 431:48–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ica.2014.12.015
Comba S, Dalmazzo D, Santagata E, Sethi R (2011a) Rheological characterization of xanthan suspensions of nanoscale iron for injection in porous media. J Hazard Mater 185:598–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.09.060
Comba S, Di Molfetta A, Sethi R (2011b) A comparison between field applications of nano-, micro-, and millimetric zero-valent iron for the remediation of contaminated aquifers. Water Air Soil Pollut 215:595–607
Crampon M, Hellal J, Mouvet C et al (2018) Do natural biofilm impact nZVI mobility and interactions with porous media? A column study. Sci Total Environ 610–611:709–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2017.08.106
Crane RA, Scott TB (2012) Nanoscale zero-valent iron: future prospects for an emerging water treatment technology. J Hazard Mater 211:112–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.11.073
Cushman CS (2014) Destruction of chlorinated hydrocarbons by zero-valent zinc and bimetallic zinc reductants in bench-scale investigations. Wright State University
Cwiertny DM, Scherer MM (2010) Abiotic processes affecting the remediation of chlorinated solvents. In: Stroo HF, Ward CH (eds) In situ remediation of chlorinated solvent plumes. Springer, New York, NY, pp 69–108
Cwiertny DM, Bransfield SJ, Livi KJT et al (2006) Exploring the influence of granular iron additives on 1,1,1-trichloroethane reduction. Environ Sci Technol 40:6837–6843. https://doi.org/10.1021/es060921v
Cwiertny DM, Arnold WA, Kohn T et al (2010) Reactivity of alkyl polyhalides toward granular iron: development of QSARs and reactivity cross correlations for reductive dehalogenation. Environ Sci Technol 44:7928–7936. https://doi.org/10.1021/es1018866
Danko AS, Luo M, Bagwell CE et al (2004) Involvement of linear plasmids in aerobic biodegradation of vinyl chloride. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:6092–6097. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.70.10.6092-6097.2004
de Bruin WP, Kotterman MJ, Posthumus MA et al (1992) Complete biological reductive transformation of tetrachloroethene to ethane. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:1996–2000
Dean JA (2004) Lange’s handbook of chemistry, vol 15. McGraw-Hill, New York
DiStefano TD, Gossett JM, Zinder SH (1992) Hydrogen as an electron donor for dechlorination of tetrachloroethene by an anaerobic mixed culture. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:3622–3629
Doherty RE (2000a) A history of the production and use of carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the United States: part 1 – historical background; carbon tetrachloride and tetrachloroethylene. Environ Forensic 1:69–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/enfo.2000.0010
Doherty RE (2000b) A history of the production and use of carbon tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane in the United States: Part 2 – trichloroethylene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Environ Forensic 1:83–93. https://doi.org/10.1006/enfo.2000.0011
Dolfing J, Van Eekert M, Mueller J (2006) Thermodynamics of low Eh reactions. In: Battelle’s fifth international conference on remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds. Monterey, CA
Domínguez CM, Parchão J, Rodriguez S et al (2016) Kinetics of lindane dechlorination by zero valent iron microparticles: effect of different salts and stability study. Ind Eng Chem Res 55:12776–12785. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.6b03434
Dong T, Luo H, Wang Y et al (2011) Stabilization of Fe–Pd bimetallic nanoparticles with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for catalytic reduction of para-nitrochlorobenzene in water. Desalination 271:11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2010.12.003
Dong H, Xie Y, Zeng G et al (2016a) The dual effects of carboxymethyl cellulose on the colloidal stability and toxicity of nanoscale zero-valent iron. Chemosphere 144:1682–1689. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2015.10.066
Dong H, Zhao F, Zeng G et al (2016b) Aging study on carboxymethyl cellulose-coated zero-valent iron nanoparticles in water: chemical transformation and structural evolution. J Hazard Mater 312:234–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2016.03.069
Dong H, Jiang Z, Deng J et al (2018) Physicochemical transformation of Fe/Ni bimetallic nanoparticles during aging in simulated groundwater and the consequent effect on contaminant removal. Water Res 129:51–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.11.002
Doong R-A, Lai Y-J (2005) Dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene by palladized iron in the presence of humic acid. Water Res 39:2309–2318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2005.04.036
Doong R, Lai Y (2006) Effect of metal ions and humic acid on the dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene by zerovalent iron. Chemosphere 64:371–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.12.038
Doong R-A, Wu S-C (1992) Reductive dechlorination of chlorinated hydrocarbons in aqueous solutions containing ferrous and sulfide ions. Chemosphere 24:1063–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(92)90197-Y
Dries J, Bastiaens L, Springael D, et al (2002) Kinetics of trichloroethene (TCE) reduction by zero-valent iron: effect of medium composition. In: Thornton SF, Oswald SE (eds) Groundwater quality: natural and enhanced restoration of groundwater pollution (Proceedings of the groundwater quality 2001 conference held at Sheffield, UK, June 2001), IAHS Press, pp 397–402
Dries J, Bastiaens L, Springael D et al (2004) Competition for sorption and degradation of chlorinated ethenes in batch zero-valent iron systems. Environ Sci Technol 38:2879–2884. https://doi.org/10.1021/es034933h
Dries J, Bastiaens L, Springael D et al (2005) Combined removal of chlorinated ethenes and heavy metals by zerovalent iron in batch and continuous flow column systems. Environ Sci Technol 39:8460–8465. https://doi.org/10.1021/es050251d
Dror I, Schlautman MA (2004) Cosolvent effect on the catalytic reductive dechlorination of PCE. Chemosphere 57:1505–1514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.08.078
Elango VK, Liggenstoffer AS, Fathepure BZ (2006) Biodegradation of vinyl chloride and cis-dichloroethene by a ralstonia sp. strain TRW-1. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 72:1270–1275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-006-0424-4
Elliott DW, Zhang W (2001) Field assessment of nanoscale bimetallic particles for groundwater treatment. Environ Sci Technol 35:4922–4926. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0108584
Elsner M, Schwarzenbach RP, Haderlein SB (2004) Reactivity of Fe(II)-bearing minerals toward reductive transformation of organic contaminants. Environ Sci Technol 38:799–807. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0345569
European Chlorinated Solvent Association ECSA Product and Application Toolbox – Guidance on Safe and Sustainable Use of Chlorinated Solvents
Ezzatahmadi N, Ayoko GA, Millar GJ et al (2017) Clay-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron composite materials for the remediation of contaminated aqueous solutions: a review. Chem Eng J 312:336–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2016.11.154
Fajardo C, Ortíz LT, Rodríguez-Membibre ML et al (2012) Assessing the impact of zero-valent iron (ZVI) nanotechnology on soil microbial structure and functionality: a molecular approach. Chemosphere 86:802–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2011.11.041
Fajardo C, Saccà ML, Martinez-Gomariz M et al (2013) Transcriptional and proteomic stress responses of a soil bacterium bacillus cereus to nanosized zero-valent iron (nZVI) particles. Chemosphere 93:1077–1083. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2013.05.082
Fan D, Anitori RP, Tebo BM et al (2013) Reductive sequestration of pertechnetate (99TcO4–) by nano zerovalent iron (nZVI) transformed by abiotic sulfide. Environ Sci Technol 47:5302–5310. https://doi.org/10.1021/es304829z
Fan D, Chen S, Johnson RL, Tratnyek PG (2015) Field deployable chemical redox probe for quantitative characterization of carboxymethylcellulose modified nano zerovalent iron. Environ Sci Technol 49:10589–10597. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b02804
Fan D, O’Brien Johnson G, Tratnyek PG, Johnson RL (2016a) Sulfidation of nano zerovalent iron (nZVI) for improved selectivity during in-situ chemical reduction (ISCR). Environ Sci Technol 50:9558–9565. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02170
Fan D, O’Carroll DM, Elliott DW et al (2016b) Selectivity of nano zerovalent iron in in situ chemical reduction: challenges and improvements. Remediat J 26:27–40. https://doi.org/10.1002/rem.21481
Fan G, Wang Y, Fang G et al (2016c) Review of chemical and electrokinetic remediation of PCBs contaminated soils and sediments. Environ Sci Process Impacts 18:1140–1156. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EM00320F
Fan D, Lan Y, Tratnyek PG et al (2017) Sulfidation of iron-based materials: a review of processes and implications for water treatment and remediation. Environ Sci Technol 51:13070–13085. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04177
Fang L, Xu C, Zhang W, Huang L-Z (2017) The important role of polyvinylpyrrolidone and Cu on enhancing dechlorination of 2,4-dichlorophenol by Cu/Fe nanoparticles: performance and mechanism study. Appl Surf Sci 435:55–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.11.084
Fang Y, Wen J, Zeng G et al (2018) From nZVI to SNCs: development of a better material for pollutant removal in water. Environ Sci Pollut Res:1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-1143-3
Farrell J, Kason M, Melitas N, Li T (2000) Investigation of the long-term performance of zero-valent iron for reductive dechlorination of trichloroethylene. Environ Sci Technol 34:514–521. https://doi.org/10.1021/es990716y
Fennelly JP, Roberts AL (1998) Reaction of 1,1,1-trichloroethane with zero-valent metals and bimetallic reductants. Environ Sci Technol 32:1980–1988. https://doi.org/10.1021/es970784p
Filip J, Karlický F, Marušák Z et al (2014) Anaerobic reaction of nanoscale zerovalent iron with water: mechanism and kinetics. J Phys Chem C 118:13817–13825. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp501846f
Flores Orozco A, Velimirovic M, Tosco T et al (2015) Monitoring the injection of microscale zerovalent iron particles for groundwater remediation by means of complex electrical conductivity imaging. Environ Sci Technol 49:5593–5600. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00208
Freedman DL, Gossett JM (1989) Biological reductive dechlorination of tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene to ethylene under methanogenic conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 55:2144–2151
FRTR (2007) Remediation technologies screening matrix and reference guide, version 4.0
Fu F, Dionysiou DD, Liu H (2014a) The use of zero-valent iron for groundwater remediation and wastewater treatment: a review. J Hazard Mater 267:194–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.12.062
Fu PP, Xia Q, Hwang H-M et al (2014b) Mechanisms of nanotoxicity: generation of reactive oxygen species. J Food Drug Anal 22:64–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFDA.2014.01.005
Gastone F, Tosco T, Sethi R (2014) Green stabilization of microscale iron particles using guar gum: bulk rheology, sedimentation rate and enzymatic degradation. J Colloid Interface Sci 421:33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2014.01.021
Gerlach R, Cunningham AB, Caccavo FJ (2000) Dissimilatory iron-reducing bacteria can influence the reduction of carbon tetrachloride by iron metal. Environ Sci Technol 34:2461–2464. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES991200H
Ghauch A, Assi HA, Baydoun H et al (2011) Fe0-based trimetallic systems for the removal of aqueous diclofenac: mechanism and kinetics. Chem Eng J 172:1033–1044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2011.07.020
Ghosh I, Mukherjee A, Mukherjee A (2017) In planta genotoxicity of nZVI: influence of colloidal stability on uptake, DNA damage, oxidative stress and cell death. Mutagenesis 32:371–387. https://doi.org/10.1093/mutage/gex006
Gillham RW, O’Hannesin SF (1994) Enhanced degradation of halogenated aliphatics by zero-valent iron. Ground Water 32:958–967. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1994.tb00935.x
Gillham RW, Vogan J, Gui L et al (2010) Iron barrier walls for chlorinated solvent remediation. In: Stroo HF, Ward CH (eds) In situ remediation of chlorinated solvent plumes. Springer, New York, NY, pp 537–571
Glod G, Brodmann U, Angst W et al (1997) Cobalamin-mediated reduction of cis- and trans-dichloroethene, 1,1-dichloroethene, and vinyl chloride in homogeneous aqueous solution: reaction kinetics and mechanistic considerations. Environ Sci Technol 31:3154–3160. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9701220
Gong Y, Tang J, Zhao D (2016) Application of iron sulfide particles for groundwater and soil remediation: a review. Water Res 89:309–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.063
Gong X, Huang D, Liu Y et al (2018) Remediation of contaminated soils by biotechnology with nanomaterials: bio-behavior, applications, and perspectives. Crit Rev Biotechnol 38:455–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2017.1368446
Gorski CA, Scherer MM (2009) Influence of magnetite stoichiometry on FeII uptake and nitrobenzene reduction. Environ Sci Technol 43:3675–3680. https://doi.org/10.1021/es803613a
Gorski CA, Edwards R, Sander M et al (2016) Thermodynamic characterization of iron oxide-aqueous Fe2+ redox couples. Environ Sci Technol 50:8538–8547. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02661
Gossett JM (2010) Sustained aerobic oxidation of vinyl chloride at low oxygen concentrations. Environ Sci Technol 44:1405–1411. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9033974
Greenlee LF, Torrey JD, Amaro RL, Shaw JM (2012) Kinetics of zero valent iron nanoparticle oxidation in oxygenated water. Environ Sci Technol 46:12913–12920. https://doi.org/10.1021/es303037k
Greenwood NN, Earnshaw A (1997) Chemistry of the elements, 2nd edn. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
Gribble GW (2003) The diversity of naturally produced organohalogens. Chemosphere 52:289–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00207-8
Grieger KD, Fjordbøge A, Hartmann NB et al (2010) Environmental benefits and risks of zero-valent iron nanoparticles (nZVI) for in situ remediation: risk mitigation or trade-off? J Contam Hydrol 118:165–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2010.07.011
Gu Y, Wang B, He F et al (2017) Mechanochemically sulfidated microscale zero valent iron: pathways, kinetics, mechanism, and efficiency of trichloroethylene dechlorination. Environ Sci Technol 51(21):12653–12662. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b03604
Guan X, Sun Y, Qin H et al (2015) The limitations of applying zero-valent iron technology in contaminants sequestration and the corresponding countermeasures: the development in zero-valent iron technology in the last two decades (1994–2014). Water Res 75:224–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WATRES.2015.02.034
Han Y, Yan W (2014) Bimetallic nickel–iron nanoparticles for groundwater decontamination: effect of groundwater constituents on surface deactivation. Water Res 66:149–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WATRES.2014.08.001
Han Y, Yan W (2016) Reductive dechlorination of trichloroethene by zero-valent iron nanoparticles: reactivity enhancement through sulfidation treatment. Environ Sci Technol 50:12992–13001. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b03997
Han Y, Yang MDY, Zhang W, Yan W (2015) Optimizing synthesis conditions of nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) through aqueous reactivity assessment. Front Environ Sci Eng 9:813–822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-015-0784-z
Han J, Xin J, Zheng X et al (2016a) Remediation of trichloroethylene-contaminated groundwater by three modifier-coated microscale zero-valent iron. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:14442–14450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6368-z
Han L, Yang L, Wang H et al (2016b) Sustaining reactivity of Fe0 for nitrate reduction via electron transfer between dissolved Fe2+ and surface iron oxides. J Hazard Mater 308:208–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2016.01.047
Han Y, Liu C, Horita J, Yan W (2016c) Trichloroethene hydrodechlorination by Pd-Fe bimetallic nanoparticles: solute-induced catalyst deactivation analyzed by carbon isotope fractionation. Appl Catal B Environ 188:77–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2016.01.047
Haneda K, Morrish AH (1977) Magnetite to maghemite transformation in ultrafine particles. Le J Phys Colloq 38:C1-321–C1-323. https://doi.org/10.1051/jphyscol:1977166
Harendra S, Vipulanandan C (2008) Degradation of high concentrations of PCE solubilized in SDS and biosurfactant with Fe/Ni Bi-metallic particles. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem Eng Asp 322:6–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2008.02.009
Harendra S, Vipulanandan C (2011) Solubilization and degradation of perchloroethylene (PCE) in cationic and nonionic surfactant solutions. J Environ Sci (China) 23:1240–1248
Hartmans S, De Bont JA (1992) Aerobic vinyl chloride metabolism in mycobacterium aurum L1. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:1220–1226
Hawley GG (1981) Hawley’s condensed chemical dictionary, 10th edn. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY
He F, Zhao D (2005) Preparation and characterization of a new class of starch-stabilized bimetallic nanoparticles for degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons in water. Environ Sci Technol 39:3314–3320. https://doi.org/10.1021/es048743y
He F, Zhao D (2007) Manipulating the size and dispersibility of zerovalent iron nanoparticles by use of carboxymethyl cellulose stabilizers. Environ Sci Technol 41:6216–6221. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0705543
He F, Zhao D (2008) Hydrodechlorination of trichloroethene using stabilized Fe-Pd nanoparticles: reaction mechanism and effects of stabilizers, catalysts and reaction conditions. Appl Catal B Environ 84:533–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2008.05.008
He F, Zhao D, Liu J, Roberts CB (2007) Stabilization of Fe−Pd nanoparticles with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose for enhanced transport and dechlorination of trichloroethylene in soil and groundwater. Ind Eng Chem Res 46:29–34. https://doi.org/10.1021/IE0610896
He F, Zhao D, Paul C (2010) Field assessment of carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized iron nanoparticles for in situ destruction of chlorinated solvents in source zones. Water Res 44:2360–2370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.12.041
He YT, Wilson JT, Su C, Wilkin RT (2015) Review of abiotic degradation of chlorinated solvents by reactive iron minerals in aquifers. Groundw Monit Remediat 35:57–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/GWMR.12111
He D, Ma J, Collins RN, Waite TD (2016) Effect of structural transformation of nanoparticulate zero-valent iron on generation of reactive oxygen species. Environ Sci Technol 50:3820–3828. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04988
He C-S, He D, Collins RN et al (2018a) Effects of good’s buffers and pH on the structural transformation of zero valent iron and the oxidative degradation of contaminants. Environ Sci Technol 52:3. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04030
He F, Li Z, Shi S et al (2018b) Dechlorination of excess trichloroethene by bimetallic and sulfidated nanoscale zero-valent iron. Environ Sci Technol 52(15):8627–8637. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8B0173
Heck KN, Janesko BG, Scuseria GE et al (2008) Observing metal-catalyzed chemical reactions in situ using surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy on Pd-Au nanoshells. J Am Chem Soc 130:16592–16600. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja803556k
Henderson AD, Demond AH (2007) Long-term performance of zero-valent iron permeable reactive barriers: a critical review. Environ Eng Sci 24:401–423. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2006.0071
Heron G, Christensen TH, Enfield CG (1998) Henry’s law constant for trichloroethylene between 10 and 95°C. Environ Sci Technol 32:1433–1437. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9707015
Hotze EM, Phenrat T, Lowry GV (2010) Nanoparticle aggregation: challenges to understanding transport and reactivity in the environment. J Environ Qual 39:1909. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2009.0462
Huang YH, Zhang TC (2005) Effects of dissolved oxygen on formation of corrosion products and concomitant oxygen and nitrate reduction in zero-valent iron systems with or without aqueous Fe2+. Water Res 39:1751–1760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2005.03.002
Huang B, Isse AA, Durante C et al (2012) Electrocatalytic properties of transition metals toward reductive dechlorination of polychloroethanes. Electrochim Acta 70:50–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ELECTACTA.2012.03.009
Huang B, Long J, Chen W et al (2016a) Linear free energy relationships of electrochemical and thermodynamic parameters for the electrochemical reductive dechlorination of chlorinated volatile organic compounds (Cl-VOCs). Electrochim Acta 208:195–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.04.182
Huang B, Qian W, Yu C et al (2016b) Effective catalytic hydrodechlorination of o-, p- and m-chloronitrobenzene over Ni/Fe nanoparticles: effects of experimental parameter and molecule structure on the reduction kinetics and mechanisms. Chem Eng J 306:607–618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.07.109
Huang L-Z, Yin Z, Cooper NGA et al (2018) Copper-mediated reductive dechlorination by green rust intercalated with dodecanoate. J Hazard Mater 345:18–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.11.011
Hwang Y-H, Kim D-G, Shin H-S (2011) Effects of synthesis conditions on the characteristics and reactivity of nano scale zero valent iron. Appl Catal B Environ 105:144–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2011.04.005
Hydutsky BW, Mack EJ, Beckerman BB et al (2007) Optimization of nano- and microiron transport through sand columns using polyelectrolyte mixtures. Environ Sci Technol 41:6418–6424. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES0704075
Hyman M, Dupont RR (2001) Groundwater remediation using carbon adsorption. In: Groundwater and soil remediation: process design and cost estimating of proven technologies. ASCE Press, Reston, VA, pp 109–135
Hyun SP, Hayes KF (2015) Abiotic reductive dechlorination of cis-DCE by ferrous monosulfide mackinawite. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:16463–16474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5033-2
Ignatiadis I, Betelu S, Colombano S, et al (2014) DECHLORED: development and in situ implementation of a chemical process for the reductive dechlorination of chlorinated solvents in polluted groundwater. Intersol, March 18–20, 2014. Lille, France
Ignatiadis I, Betelu S, Rodrigues R, et al (2015) Mechanisms of natural reductive biodechlorination (RDC) of chlorinated solvents in an old polluted site. 6th European bioremediation conference, June 29–July 2, 2015. Chania, Greece
Ignatiadis I, Betelu S, Colombano S, et al (2016) Déchloration réductive chimique in situ des solvants chlorés présents dans les aquifères : pilote de démonstration sur le site de Néry-Saintines. Rapport final BRGM/RC-65722-FR, 262 p
Iranzo A, Chauvet F, Tzedakis T (2015) Influence of electrode material and roughness on iron electrodeposits dispersion by ultrasonification. Electrochim Acta 184:436–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.10.052
Jafvert CT (1994) Solubilization of non-polar compounds by non-ionic surfactant micelles. Water Res 28:1009–1017. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(94)90185-6
Janda V, Vasek P, Bizova J, Belohlav Z (2004) Kinetic models for volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons removal by zero-valent iron. Chemosphere 54:917–925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2003.08.033
Jang M-H, Lim M, Hwang YS (2014) Potential environmental implications of nanoscale zero-valent iron particles for environmental remediation. Environ Health Toxicol 29:e2014022. https://doi.org/10.5620/eht.e2014022
Jeffers PM, Ward LM, Woytowitch LM, Wolfe NL (1989) Homogeneous hydrolysis rate constants for selected chlorinated methanes, ethanes, ethenes, and propanes. Environ Sci Technol 23:965–969. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00066a006
Jeong HY, Kim H, Hayes KF (2007) Reductive dechlorination pathways of tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene and subsequent transformation of their dechlorination products by mackinawite (FeS) in the presence of metals. Environ Sci Technol 41:7736–7743. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES0708518
Jeong HY, Anantharaman K, Han Y-S, Hayes KF (2011) Abiotic reductive dechlorination of cis-dichloroethylene by Fe species formed during iron- or sulfate-reduction. Environ Sci Technol 45:5186–5194. https://doi.org/10.1021/es104387w
Jeong HY, Anantharaman K, Hyun SP et al (2013) pH impact on reductive dechlorination of cis-dichloroethylene by Fe precipitates: an X-ray absorption spectroscopy study. Water Res 47:6639–6649. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WATRES.2013.08.035
Jiang G, Lan M, Zhang Z et al (2017) Identification of active hydrogen species on palladium nanoparticles for an enhanced electrocatalytic hydrodechlorination of 2,4-dichlorophenol in water. Environ Sci Technol 51:7599–7605. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b01128
Jiang D, Zeng G, Huang D et al (2018) Remediation of contaminated soils by enhanced nanoscale zero valent iron. Environ Res 163:217–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVRES.2018.01.030
Jiao Y, Qiu C, Huang L et al (2009) Reductive dechlorination of carbon tetrachloride by zero-valent iron and related iron corrosion. Appl Catal B Environ 91:434–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.06.012
Johnson RL, Johnson PC (2012) In situ sparging for delivery of gases in the subsurface. In: Delivery and mixing in the subsurface. Springer, New York, NY, pp 193–216
Johnson RL, Pankow JF (1992) Dissolution of dense chlorinated solvents into groundwater. 2. Source functions for pools of solvent. Environ Sci Technol 26:896–901. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00029a004
Johnson TL, Scherer MM, Tratnyek PG (1996) Kinetics of halogenated organic compound degradation by iron metal. Environ Sci Technol 30:2634–2640. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9600901
Johnson TL, Fish W, Gorby YA, Tratnyek PG (1998) Degradation of carbon tetrachloride by iron metal: complexation effects on the oxide surface. J Contam Hydrol 29:379–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7722(97)00063-6
Johnson RL, Nurmi JT, O’Brien Johnson GS et al (2013) Field-scale transport and transformation of carboxymethylcellulose-stabilized nano zero-valent iron. Environ Sci Technol 47:1573–1580. https://doi.org/10.1021/es304564q
Kaifas D (2014) Déchloration réductive par les nanoparticules de fer zéro-valent : une solution innovante pour la réhabilitation des aquifères souterrains contaminés par le trichloroéthylène. Aix-Marseille Université
Kaifas D, Malleret L, Kumar N et al (2014) Assessment of potential positive effects of nZVI surface modification and concentration levels on TCE dechlorination in the presence of competing strong oxidants, using an experimental design. Sci Total Environ 481:335–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.043
Karn B, Kuiken T, Otto M (2009) Nanotechnology and in situ remediation: a review of the benefits and potential risks. Environ Health Perspect 117:1813–1831. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900793
Keenan CR, Sedlak DL (2008) Factors affecting the yield of oxidants from the reaction of nanoparticulate zero-valent iron and oxygen. Environ Sci Technol 42:1262–1267. https://doi.org/10.1021/es7025664
Keenan CR, Goth-Goldstein R, Lucas D, Sedlak DL (2009) Oxidative stress induced by zero-valent iron nanoparticles and Fe(II) in human bronchial epithelial cells. Environ Sci Technol 43:4555–4560. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9006383
Kharissova OV, Dias HVR, Kharisov BI et al (2013) The greener synthesis of nanoparticles. Trends Biotechnol 31:240–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2013.01.003
Kim YH, Carraway ER (2003) Reductive dechlorination of TCE by zero valent bimetals. Environ Technol 24:69–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330309385537
Kim JY, Park H-J, Lee C et al (2010) Inactivation of Escherichia coli by nanoparticulate zerovalent iron and ferrous ion. Appl Environ Microbiol 76:7668–7670. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01009-10
Kim E-J, Kim J-H, Azad A-M, Chang Y-S (2011) Facile synthesis and characterization of Fe/FeS nanoparticles for environmental applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 3:1457–1462. https://doi.org/10.1021/am200016v
Kim H-S, Kim T, Ahn J-Y et al (2012) Aging characteristics and reactivity of two types of nanoscale zero-valent iron particles (FeBH and FeH2) in nitrate reduction. Chem Eng J 197:16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2012.05.018
Kim H-H, Kim MS, Kim H-E et al (2017) Nanoparticulate zero-valent iron coupled with polyphosphate: the sequential redox treatment of organic compounds and its stability and bacterial toxicity. Environ Sci Nano 4:396–405. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EN00502K
Kingston JLT, Johnson PC, Kueper BH, Mumford KG (2014) In situ thermal treatment of chlorinated solvent source zones. In: Kueper BH, Stroo HF, Vogel CM, Ward CH (eds) Chlorinated solvent source zone remediation. Springer, New York, NY, pp 509–557
Kirschling TL, Gregory KB, Minkley EG Jr et al (2010) Impact of nanoscale zero valent iron on geochemistry and microbial populations in trichloroethylene contaminated aquifer materials. Environ Sci Technol 44:3474–3480. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903744f
Kirschling TL, Golas PL, Unrine JM et al (2011) Microbial bioavailability of covalently bound polymer coatings on model engineered nanomaterials. Environ Sci Technol 45:5253–5259. https://doi.org/10.1021/es200770z
Klečka GM, Gonsior SJ (1984) Reductive dechlorination of chlorinated methanes and ethanes by reduced iron (II) porphyrins. Chemosphere 13:391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(84)90097-3
Knauss KG, Dibley MJ, Leif RN et al (2000) The aqueous solubility of trichloroethene (TCE) and tetrachloroethene (PCE) as a function of temperature. Appl Geochem 15:501–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(99)00058-X
Kocur CM, Chowdhury AI, Sakulchaicharoen N et al (2014) Characterization of nZVI mobility in a field scale test. Environ Sci Technol 48:2862–2869. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4044209
Kocur CMD, Lomheim L, Boparai HK et al (2015) Contributions of abiotic and biotic dechlorination following carboxymethyl cellulose stabilized nanoscale zero valent iron injection. Environ Sci Technol 49:8648–8656. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00719
Kocur CMD, Lomheim L, Molenda O et al (2016) Long-term field study of microbial community and dechlorinating activity following carboxymethyl cellulose-stabilized nanoscale zero-valent iron injection. Environ Sci Technol 50:7658–7670. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b01745
Koenig JC, Boparai HK, Lee MJ et al (2016) Particles and enzymes: combining nanoscale zero valent iron and organochlorine respiring bacteria for the detoxification of chloroethane mixtures. J Hazard Mater 308:106–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2015.12.036
Kueper BH, Wealthall GP, Smith JWN et al (2003) An illustrated handbook of DNAPL transport and fate in the subsurface. Environment Agency, Bristol
Kueper BH, Stroo HF, Vogel CM, Ward CH (2014) Source zone remediation: the state of the practice. In: Kueper BH, Stroo HF, Vogel CM, Ward CH (eds) Chlorinated solvent source zone remediation. Springer, New York, NY, pp 1–27
Kumar N, Auffan M, Gattacceca J et al (2014a) Molecular insights of oxidation process of iron nanoparticles: spectroscopic, magnetic, and microscopic evidence. Environ Sci Technol 48:13888–13894. https://doi.org/10.1021/es503154q
Kumar N, Omoregie EO, Rose J et al (2014b) Inhibition of sulfate reducing bacteria in aquifer sediment by iron nanoparticles. Water Res 51:64–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.09.042
Kumar N, Labille J, Bossa N et al (2017) Enhanced transportability of zero valent iron nanoparticles in aquifer sediments: surface modifications, reactivity, and particle traveling distances. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:9269–9277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8597-1
Kumar N, Lezama Pacheco J, Noël V et al (2018) Sulfidation mechanisms of Fe(III)-(oxyhydr)oxide nanoparticles: a spectroscopic study. Environ Sci Nano 5(4):1012–1026. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EN01109A
Kutílek M, Nielsen DR (1994) Soil hydrology. Catena Verlag, Cremlingen Destedt
Lasaga AC (1981) Transition state theory. Rev Mineral Geochem 8:135–168
Laumann S, Mici V, Lowry GV, Hofmann T (2013) Carbonate minerals in porous media decrease mobility of polyacrylic acid modified zero-valent iron nanoparticles used for groundwater remediation. Environ Pollut 179:53–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.04.004
Lee W (2004) Removal of trichloroethylene in reduced soil columns. J Hazard Mater 113:175–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.06.027
Lee C (2015) Oxidation of organic contaminants in water by iron-induced oxygen activation: a short review. Environ Eng Res 20:205–211. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2015.051
Lee W, Batchelor B (2002a) Abiotic reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethylenes by iron-bearing soil minerals. 2. Green rust. Environ Sci Technol 36:5348–5354. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0258374
Lee W, Batchelor B (2002b) Abiotic reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethylenes by iron-bearing soil minerals. 1. Pyrite and magnetite. Environ Sci Technol 36:5348–5354. https://doi.org/10.1021/es025836b
Lee C, Sedlak DL (2008) Enhanced formation of oxidants from bimetallic nickel−iron nanoparticles in the presence of oxygen. Environ Sci Technol 42:8528–8533. https://doi.org/10.1021/es801947h
Lee C, Kim JY, Il LW et al (2008) Bactericidal effect of zero-valent iron nanoparticles on Escherichia coli. Environ Sci Technol 42:4927–4933. https://doi.org/10.1021/es800408u
Lee HH, Lee HH, Kim H-E et al (2014) Oxidant production from corrosion of nano- and microparticulate zero-valent iron in the presence of oxygen: a comparative study. J Hazard Mater 265:201–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2013.11.066
Leeson A, Johnson P, Bruce C, et al (2002) Design paradigm: air sparging technology transfer and multi-site evaluation. Alexandria, VA
Lefevre E, Bossa N, Wiesner MR, Gunsch CK (2016) A review of the environmental implications of in situ remediation by nanoscale zero valent iron (nZVI): behavior, transport and impacts on microbial communities. Sci Total Environ 565:889–901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.003
Lei C, Sun Y, Tsang DCW, Lin D (2018) Environmental transformations and ecological effects of iron-based nanoparticles. Environ Pollut 232:10–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2017.09.052
Lemaire J, Buès M, Kabeche T et al (2013a) Oxidant selection to treat an aged PAH contaminated soil by in situ chemical oxidation. J Environ Chem Eng 1:1261–1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JECE.2013.09.018
Lemaire J, Laurent F, Leyval C et al (2013b) PAH oxidation in aged and spiked soils investigated by column experiments. Chemosphere 91:406–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2012.12.003
Lemming G, Chambon JC, Binning PJ, Bjerg PL (2012) Is there an environmental benefit from remediation of a contaminated site? Combined assessments of the risk reduction and life cycle impact of remediation. J Environ Manag 112:392–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2012.08.002
Levin DB, Pitt L, Love M (2004) Biohydrogen production: prospects and limitations to practical application. Int J Hydrog Energy 29:173–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-3199(03)00094-6
Li X, Zhang W (2007) Sequestration of metal cations with zerovalent iron nanoparticles: a study with high resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HR-XPS). J Phys Chem C 111:6939–6946. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp0702189
Li L, Fan M, Brown RC et al (2006a) Synthesis, properties, and environmental applications of nanoscale iron-based materials: a review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 36:405–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643380600620387
Li X, Elliott DW, Zhang W (2006b) Zero-valent iron nanoparticles for abatement of environmental pollutants: materials and engineering aspects. Crit Rev Solid State Mater Sci 31:111–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408430601057611
Li S, Yan W, Zhang W (2009) Solvent-free production of nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) with precision milling. Green Chem 11:1618. https://doi.org/10.1039/b913056j
Li Z, Greden K, Alvarez PJJ et al (2010) Adsorbed polymer and NOM limits adhesion and toxicity of nano scale zerovalent iron to E. coli. Environ Sci Technol 44:3462–3467. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9031198
Li D, Mao Z, Zhong Y et al (2016a) Reductive transformation of tetrabromobisphenol A by sulfidated nano zerovalent iron. Water Res 103:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WATRES.2016.07.003
Li J, Rajajayavel SRC, Ghoshal S (2016b) Transport of carboxymethyl cellulose-coated zerovalent iron nanoparticles in a sand tank: effects of sand grain size, nanoparticle concentration and injection velocity. Chemosphere 150:8–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2015.12.075
Li H, Qiu Y, Wang X et al (2017a) Biochar supported Ni/Fe bimetallic nanoparticles to remove 1,1,1-trichloroethane under various reaction conditions. Chemosphere 169:534–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.11.117
Li J, Zhang X, Sun Y et al (2017b) Advances in sulfidation of zerovalent iron for water decontamination. Environ Sci Technol 51:13533–13544. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b02695
Li Y, Li X, Han D et al (2017c) New insights into the role of Ni loading on the surface structure and the reactivity of nZVI toward tetrabromo- and tetrachlorobisphenol A. Chem Eng J 311:173–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2016.11.084
Li J, Zhang X, Liu M et al (2018) Enhanced reactivity and electron selectivity of sulfidated zerovalent iron toward chromate under aerobic conditions. Environ Sci Technol 52:2988–2997. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b06502
Lien H-L, Zhang W (1999) Transformation of chlorinated methanes by nanoscale iron particles. J Environ Eng 125:1042–1047. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1999)125:11(1042)
Lien H-L, Zhang W (2001) Nanoscale iron particles for complete reduction of chlorinated ethenes. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 191:97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-7757(01)00767-1
Lien H-L, Zhang W (2005) Hydrodechlorination of chlorinated ethanes by nanoscale Pd/Fe bimetallic particles. J Environ Eng 131:4–10. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2005)131:1(4)
Lien H-L, Zhang W (2007) Nanoscale Pd/Fe bimetallic particles: catalytic effects of palladium on hydrodechlorination. Appl Catal B Environ 77:110–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2007.07.014
Lien H-L, Jhuo Y-S, Chen L-H (2007) Effect of heavy metals on dechlorination of carbon tetrachloride by iron nanoparticles. Environ Eng Sci 24:21–30. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2007.24.21
Lin CJ, Lo S-L (2005) Effects of iron surface pretreatment on sorption and reduction kinetics of trichloroethylene in a closed batch system. Water Res 39:1037–1046. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WATRES.2004.06.035
Lin CJ, Lo SL, Liou YH (2004) Dechlorination of trichloroethylene in aqueous solution by noble metal-modified iron. J Hazard Mater 116:219–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.09.005
Lin K-S, Mdlovu NV, Chen C-Y et al (2018) Degradation of TCE, PCE, and 1,2–DCE DNAPLs in contaminated groundwater using polyethylenimine-modified zero-valent iron nanoparticles. J Clean Prod 175:456–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.12.074
Ling L, Zhang W (2014a) Reactions of nanoscale zero-valent iron with Ni(II): three-dimensional tomography of the “hollow out” effect in a single nanoparticle. Environ Sci Technol Lett 1:209–213. https://doi.org/10.1021/ez4002054
Ling L, Zhang W (2014b) Sequestration of arsenate in zero-valent iron nanoparticles: visualization of intraparticle reactions at angstrom resolution. Environ Sci Technol Lett 1:305–309. https://doi.org/10.1021/ez5001512
Ling L, Zhang W (2014c) Structures of Pd–Fe(0) bimetallic nanoparticles near 0.1 nm resolution. RSC Adv 4:33861. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA04311A
Ling L, Zhang W (2017) Visualizing arsenate reactions and encapsulation in a single zero-valent iron nanoparticle. Environ Sci Technol 51:2288–2294. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04315
Ling L, Huang X, Li M, Zhang W (2017) Mapping the reactions in a single zero-valent iron nanoparticle. Environ Sci Technol 51:14293–14300. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b02233
Lipczynska-Kochany E, Harms S, Milburn R et al (1994) Degradation of carbon tetrachloride in the presence of iron and sulphur containing compounds. Chemosphere 29:1477–1489. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(94)90279-8
Liu Y, Lowry GV (2006) Effect of particle age (Fe0 Content) and solution pH on NZVI reactivity: H2 evolution and TCE dechlorination. Environ Sci Technol 40:6085–6090. https://doi.org/10.1021/es060685o
Liu Y, Choi H, Dionysiou D, Lowry GV (2005a) Trichloroethene hydrodechlorination in water by highly disordered monometallic nanoiron. Chem Mater 17:5315–5322. https://doi.org/10.1021/CM0511217
Liu Y, Majetich SA, Tilton RD et al (2005b) TCE dechlorination rates, pathways, and efficiency of nanoscale iron particles with different properties. Environ Sci Technol 39:1338–1345. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES049195R
Liu Y, Phenrat T, Lowry GV (2007) Effect of TCE concentration and dissolved groundwater solutes on NZVI-promoted TCE dechlorination and H2 evolution. Environ Sci Technol 41:7881–7887. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0711967
Liu F, Rotaru A-E, Shrestha PM et al (2012) Promoting direct interspecies electron transfer with activated carbon. Energy Environ Sci 5:8982. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee22459c
Liu A, Liu J, Pan B, Zhang W (2014a) Formation of lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH) from oxidation of nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) in oxygenated water. RSC Adv 4:57377–57382. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA08988J
Liu W-J, Qian T-T, Jiang H (2014b) Bimetallic Fe nanoparticles: recent advances in synthesis and application in catalytic elimination of environmental pollutants. Chem Eng J 236:448–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2013.10.062
Liu R, Zhao H, Zhao X et al (2018) Defect sites in ultrathin Pd nanowires facilitate the highly efficient electrochemical hydrodechlorination of pollutants by H*ads. Environ Sci Technol 52(17):9992–10002. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b02740
Loraine GA (2001) Effects of alcohols, anionic and nonionic surfactants on the reduction of PCE and TCE by zero-valent iron. Water Res 35:1453–1460. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00422-X
Lowry GV, Casman EA (2009) Nanomaterial transport, transformation, and fate in the environment. In: Nanomaterials: risks and benefits. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 125–137
Lowry GV, Reinhard M (1999) Hydrodehalogenation of 1- to 3-carbon halogenated organic compounds in water using a palladium catalyst and hydrogen gas. Environ Sci Technol 33:1905–1910. https://doi.org/10.1021/es980963m
Lowry GV, Gregory KB, Apte SC, Lead JR (2012) Transformations of nanomaterials in the environment. Environ Sci Technol 46:6893–6899. https://doi.org/10.1021/es300839e
Lu M-C, Anotai J, Chyan J-M, Ting W-P (2006) Effect of chloride ions on the dechlorination of hexachlorobenzene in the presence of zero-valent iron. Pract Period Hazard Toxic Radioact Waste Manag 10:226–230. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-025X(2006)10:4(226)
Luna M, Gastone F, Tosco T et al (2015) Pressure-controlled injection of guar gum stabilized microscale zerovalent iron for groundwater remediation. J Contam Hydrol 181:46–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCONHYD.2015.04.007
Luo J, Farrell J (2013) Understanding pH effects on trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene adsorption to iron in permeable reactive barriers for groundwater remediation. Int J Environ Sci Technol 10:77–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-012-0082-2
Luo F, Yang D, Chen Z et al (2016) One-step green synthesis of bimetallic Fe/Pd nanoparticles used to degrade orange II. J Hazard Mater 303:145–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.10.034
Ma C, Wu Y (2008) Dechlorination of perchloroethylene using zero-valent metal and microbial community. Environ Geol 55:47–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0963-8
Ma J, He D, Collins RN et al (2016) The tortoise versus the hare – possible advantages of microparticulate zerovalent iron (mZVI) over nanoparticulate zerovalent iron (nZVI) in aerobic degradation of contaminants. Water Res 105:331–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WATRES.2016.09.012
Machado S, Pacheco JG, Nouws HPA et al (2015) Characterization of green zero-valent iron nanoparticles produced with tree leaf extracts. Sci Total Environ 533:76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.06.091
Mackay DM, Freyberg DL, Roberts PV, Cherry JA (1986) A natural gradient experiment on solute transport in a sand aquifer: 1. Approach and overview of plume movement. Water Resour Res 22:2017–2029. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR022i013p02017
Mackay D, Shiu W-Y, Ma K-C, Lee SC (2006) Handbook of physical-chemical properties and environmental fate for organic chemicals, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Mackenzie K, Bleyl S, Georgi A, Kopinke F-D (2012) Carbo-iron – An Fe/AC composite – as alternative to nano-iron for groundwater treatment. Water Res 46:3817–3826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.04.013
Maire J, Joubert A, Kaifas D et al (2018) Assessment of flushing methods for the removal of heavy chlorinated compounds DNAPL in an alluvial aquifer. Sci Total Environ 612:1149–1158. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2017.08.309
Makota S, Nde-Tchoupe AI, Mwakabona HT et al (2017) Metallic iron for water treatment: leaving the valley of confusion. Appl Water Sci:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-017-0601-x
Mao X, Jiang R, Xiao W, Yu J (2015) Use of surfactants for the remediation of contaminated soils: a review. J Hazard Mater 285:419–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.12.009
Marques CA, Selva M, Tundo P (1993) Facile hydrodehalogenation with hydrogen and palladium/carbon catalyst under multiphase conditions. J Org Chem 58:5256–5260. https://doi.org/10.1021/jo00071a041
Martin JE, Herzing AA, Yan W et al (2008) Determination of the oxide layer thickness in core−shell zerovalent iron nanoparticles. Langmuir 24:4329–4334. https://doi.org/10.1021/LA703689K
Matheson LJ, Tratnyek PG (1994) Reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated methanes by iron metal. Environ Sci Technol 28:2045–2053. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00061a012
Mattes TE, Alexander AK, Coleman NV (2010) Aerobic biodegradation of the chloroethenes: pathways, enzymes, ecology, and evolution. FEMS Microbiol Rev 34:445–475. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6976.2010.00210.x
Mayhew SG (1978) The redox potential of dithionite and SO-2 from equilibrium reactions with flavodoxins, methyl viologen and hydrogen plus hydrogenase. Eur J Biochem 85:535–547
Mayhew SG, Massey V (1973) Studies on the kinetics and mechanism of reduction of flavodoxin from peptosteptocossus elsdenni by sodium dithionite. Biochim Biophys Acta 315:181–190
Maymó-Gatell X, Tandoi V, Gossett JM, Zinder SH (1995) Characterization of an H2-utilizing enrichment culture that reductively dechlorinates tetrachloroethene to vinyl chloride and ethene in the absence of methanogenesis and acetogenesis. Appl Environ Microbiol 61:3928–3933
Maymó-Gatell X, Anguish T, Zinder SH (1999) Reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes and 1, 2-dichloroethane by dehalococcoides ethenogenes 195. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:3108–3113
McCarty PL (2010) Groundwater contamination by chlorinated solvents: history, remediation technologies and strategies. In: Stroo HF, Ward CH (eds) In situ remediation of chlorinated solvent plumes. Springer, New York, NY, pp 1–28
McCarty PL, Semprini L (1994) Ground-water treatment for chlorinated solvents. In: Norris R et al (eds) Handbook of bioremediation. Lewis, Boca Raton, FL
McCauley KM, Wilson SR, van der Donk WA (2002) Synthesis and characterization of chlorinated alkenylcobaloximes to probe the mechanism of vitamin B12-catalyzed dechlorination of priority pollutants. Inorg Chem 41:393–404. https://doi.org/10.1021/IC011023X
McCormick ML, Adriaens P (2004) Carbon tetrachloride transformation on the surface of nanoscale biogenic magnetite particles. Environ Sci Technol 38:1045–1053. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES030487M
McDaniel TV, Martin PA, Ross N et al (2004) Effects of chlorinated solvents on four species of North American amphibians. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 47:101–109
Middeldorp PJM, Luijten MLGC, van de Pas BA et al (1999) Anaerobic microbial reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated ethenes. Bioremediat J 3:151–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/10889869991219280
Miehr R, Tratnyek PG, Bandstra JZ et al (2004) Diversity of contaminant reduction reactions by zerovalent iron: role of the reductate. Environ Sci Technol 38:139–147. https://doi.org/10.1021/es034237h
Millington RJ, Quirk JP (1961) Permeability of porous solides. Trans Faraday Soc 57:1200–1207
Montgomery JM (1985) Water treatment principles and design. MWH
Montgomery JH (2007) Groundwater chemicals desk reference, 4th edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Morrison RD (2000) Environmental forensics: principles and applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Morrison RD, Murphy B (2006) Environmental forensics: contaminant specific guide. Elsevier Academic, Oxford
Mu Y, Jia F, Ai Z, Zhang L (2017) Iron oxide shell mediated environmental remediation properties of nano zero-valent iron. Environ Sci Nano 4:27–45. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EN00398B
Mueller NC, Braun J, Bruns J et al (2012) Application of nanoscale zero valent iron (NZVI) for groundwater remediation in Europe. Environ Sci Pollut Res 19:550–558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-011-0576-3
Muftikian R, Fernando Q, Korte N (1995) A method for the rapid dechlorination of low molecular weight chlorinated hydrocarbons in water. Water Res 29:2434–2439. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(95)00102-Q
Muftikian R, Nebesny K, Fernando Q, Korte N (1996) X-ray photoelectron spectra of the palladium−iron bimetallic surface used for the rapid dechlorination of chlorinated organic environmental contaminants. Environ Sci Technol 30:3593–3596. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES960289D
Müller U, Dülberg A, Stoyanova A, Baltruschat H (1997) Reactions of halogenated hydrocarbons at Pt-group metals—II. On the adsorption rate at Pt and Pd electrodes. Electrochim Acta 42:2499–2509. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4686(96)00439-2
Munakata N, Reinhard M (2007) Palladium-catalyzed aqueous hydrodehalogenation in column reactors: modeling of deactivation kinetics with sulfide and comparison of regenerants. Appl Catal B Environ 75:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2007.03.005
Němeček J, Pokorný P, Lhotský O et al (2016) Combined nano-biotechnology for in-situ remediation of mixed contamination of groundwater by hexavalent chromium and chlorinated solvents. Sci Total Environ 563–564:822–834. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2016.01.019
Ni S-Q, Yang N (2014) Cation exchange resin immobilized bimetallic nickel–iron nanoparticles to facilitate their application in pollutants degradation. J Colloid Interface Sci 420:158–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2014.01.010
Nidheesh PV, Khatri J, Singh TSA et al (2018) Review of zero-valent aluminium based water and wastewater treatment methods. Chemosphere. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.02.155
Nie X, Liu J, Zeng X (2012) Effect of surfactant on HCB dechlorination by Ag/Fe bimetal in polluted soil eluent. Procedia Environ Sci 16:320–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2012.10.045
Nie X, Liu J, Zeng X, Yue D (2013) Rapid degradation of hexachlorobenzene by micron Ag/Fe bimetal particles. J Environ Sci 25:473–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(12)60088-6
Noel C, Gourry J-C, Betelu S, Ignatiadis I (2013) Improved monitoring of the reductive dechlorination of PCE in polluted soils by using geophysical and electrochemical measurements carried out in columns. In: Proceedings of the 12th international conference on sustainable use and management of soil, sediment and water resources, pp 111–121
Notini L, Latta DE, Neumann A et al (2018) The role of defects in Fe(II)–goethite electron transfer. Environ Sci Technol 52:2751–2759. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b05772
Noubactep C (2008) A critical review on the process of contaminant removal in Fe0-H2O systems. Environ Technol 29:909–920. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330802131602
Noubactep C (2009) On the validity of specific rate constants (kSA) in Fe0/H2O systems. J Hazard Mater 164:835–837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.08.074
Noubactep C (2010a) The fundamental mechanism of aqueous contaminant removal by metallic iron. Water SA. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v36i5.62000
Noubactep C (2010b) The suitability of metallic iron for environmental remediation. Environ Prog Sustain Energy 29:286–291. https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.10406
Noubactep C (2011) On the mechanism of microbe inactivation by metallic iron. J Hazard Mater 198:383–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2011.08.063
Noubactep C (2012) Investigating the processes of contaminant removal in Fe0/H2O systems. Korean J Chem Eng 29:1050–1056. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11814-011-0298-8
Noubactep C (2016) Research on metallic iron for environmental remediation: stopping growing sloppy science. Chemosphere 153:528–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.03.088
Noubactep C, Caré S (2010) On nanoscale metallic iron for groundwater remediation. J Hazard Mater 182:923–927. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2010.06.009
Noubactep C, Caré S, Crane R (2012) Nanoscale metallic iron for environmental remediation: prospects and limitations. Water Air Soil Pollut 223:1363–1382. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-011-0951-1
Nunez Garcia A, Boparai HK, O’Carroll DM (2016) Enhanced dechlorination of 1,2-dichloroethane by coupled nano iron-dithionite treatment. Environ Sci Technol 50:5243–5251. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00734
Nurmi JT, Tratnyek PG, Sarathy V et al (2005) Characterization and properties of metallic iron nanoparticles: spectroscopy, electrochemistry, and kinetics. Environ Sci Technol 39:1221–1230. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES049190U
O’Hannesin SF, Gillham RW (1998) Long-term performance of an in situ “iron wall” for remediation of VOCs. Ground Water 36:164–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1998.tb01077.x
O’Loughlin EJ, Burris DR (2004) Reduction of halogenated ethanes by green rust. Environ Toxicol Chem 23:41. https://doi.org/10.1897/03-45
Obiri-Nyarko F, Grajales-Mesa SJ, Malina G (2014) An overview of permeable reactive barriers for in situ sustainable groundwater remediation. Chemosphere 111:243–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.03.112
Ogata A (1970) Theory of dispersion in granular medium: USGS professional paper 411-I
Oleszek-Kudlak S, Shibata E, Nakamura T (2004) The effects of temperature and inorganic salts on the aqueous solubility of selected chlorobenzenes. J Chem Eng Data 49:570–575. https://doi.org/10.1021/je034170d
Olson MR, Sale TC, Shackelford CD et al (2012) Chlorinated solvent source-zone remediation via ZVI-clay soil mixing: 1-year results. Ground Water Monit Remediat 32:63–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6592.2011.01391.x
Omar S, Palomar J, Gómez-Sainero LM et al (2011) Density functional theory analysis of dichloromethane and hydrogen interaction with Pd clusters: first step to simulate catalytic hydrodechlorination. J Phys Chem C 115:14180–14192. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp200329j
Onanong S, Comfort SD, Burrow PD, Shea PJ (2007) Using gas-phase molecular descriptors to predict dechlorination rates of chloroalkanes by zerovalent iron. Environ Sci Technol 41:1200–1205. https://doi.org/10.1021/es061746l
Orth WS, Gillham RW (1996) Dechlorination of trichloroethene in aqueous solution using Fe0. Environ Sci Technol 30:66–71. https://doi.org/10.1021/es950053u
Otto WH, Britten DJ, Larive CK (2003) NMR diffusion analysis of surfactant–humic substance interactions. J Colloid Interface Sci 261:508–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9797(03)00062-6
Pankow JF, Cherry JA (1996) Dense chlorinated solvents and other DNAPLs in groundwater: history, behavior, and remediation. Waterloo Press, Ontario
Park KT, Klier K, Wang CB, Zhang WX (1997) Interaction of tetrachloroethylene with Pd(100) studied by high-resolution X-ray photoemission spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B 101:5420–5428. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp9711398
Park S-W, Kim S-K, Kim J-B et al (2006) Particle surface hydrophobicity and the dechlorination of chloro-compounds by iron sulfides. Water Air Soil Pollut Focus 6:97–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11267-005-9016-z
Patterson EV, Cramer CJ, Truhlar DG (2001) Reductive dechlorination of hexachloroethane in the environment: mechanistic studies via computational electrochemistry. J Am Chem Soc 123:2025–2031. https://doi.org/10.1021/JA0035349
Pennell KD, Cápiro NL, Walker DI (2014) Surfactant and cosolvent flushing. In: Kueper BH, Stroo HF, Vogel CM, Ward CH (eds) Chlorinated solvent source zone remediation. Springer, New York, NY, pp 353–394
Perlinger JA, Venkatapathy R, Harrison JF (2000) Linear free energy relationships for polyhalogenated alkane transformation by electron-transfer mediators in model aqueous systems. J Phys Chem A 104:2752–2763. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp993273t
Phenrat T, Saleh N, Sirk K et al (2007) Aggregation and sedimentation of aqueous nanoscale zerovalent iron dispersions. Environ Sci Technol 41:284–290. https://doi.org/10.1021/es061349a
Phenrat T, Saleh N, Sirk K et al (2008) Stabilization of aqueous nanoscale zerovalent iron dispersions by anionic polyelectrolytes: adsorbed anionic polyelectrolyte layer properties and their effect on aggregation and sedimentation. J Nanopart Res 10:795–814. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-007-9315-6
Phenrat T, Liu Y, Tilton RD, Lowry GV (2009a) Adsorbed polyelectrolyte coatings decrease Fe(0) nanoparticle reactivity with TCE in water: conceptual model and mechanisms. Environ Sci Technol 43:1507–1514. https://doi.org/10.1021/es802187d
Phenrat T, Long TC, Lowry GV, Veronesi B (2009b) Partial oxidation (“aging”) and surface modification decrease the toxicity of nanosized zerovalent iron. Environ Sci Technol 43:195–200. https://doi.org/10.1021/es801955n
Phenrat T, Cihan A, Kim H-J et al (2010) Transport and deposition of polymer-modified Fe0 nanoparticles in 2-D heterogeneous porous media: effects of particle concentration, Fe0 content, and coatings. Environ Sci Technol 44:9086–9093. https://doi.org/10.1021/es102398e
Pilling MJ, Seakins PW (1995) Reaction kinetics. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Pizarro S, Araya M, Delgadillo A (2018) Hexachloroethane reduction catalyzed by cobaloximes. effect of the substituents on the equatorial ligands. Polyhedron 141:94–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poly.2017.11.005
Pourbaix M (1963) Atlas d’équilibres électrochimiques. Gauthier-Villars et Cie, Paris, France
Pullin H, Crane RA, Morgan DJ, Scott TB (2017a) The effect of common groundwater anions on the aqueous corrosion of zero-valent iron nanoparticles and associated removal of aqueous copper and zinc. J Environ Chem Eng 5:1166–1173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2017.01.038
Pullin H, Springell R, Parry S, Scott T (2017b) The effect of aqueous corrosion on the structure and reactivity of zero-valent iron nanoparticles. Chem Eng J 308:568–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.09.088
Qin H, Sun Y, Yang H et al (2018) Unexpected effect of buffer solution on removal of selenite and selenate by zerovalent iron. Chem Eng J 334:296–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2017.10.025
Quinn J, Geiger C, Clausen C et al (2005) Field demonstration of DNAPL dehalogenation using emulsified zero-valent iron. Environ Sci Technol 39:1309–1318. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0490018
Rajajayavel SRC, Ghoshal S (2015) Enhanced reductive dechlorination of trichloroethylene by sulfidated nanoscale zerovalent iron. Water Res 78:144–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.04.009
Ranc B, Faure P, Croze V, Simonnot MO (2016) Selection of oxidant doses for in situ chemical oxidation of soils contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): a review. J Hazard Mater 312:280–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2016.03.068
Rayaroth MP, Lee C-S, Aravind UK et al (2017) Oxidative degradation of benzoic acid using Fe0- and sulfidized Fe0-activated persulfate: a comparative study. Chem Eng J 315:426–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2017.01.031
Rebodos RL, Vikesland PJ (2010) Effects of oxidation on the magnetization of nanoparticulate magnetite. Langmuir 26:16745–16753. https://doi.org/10.1021/la102461z
Reijnders L (2006) Cleaner nanotechnology and hazard reduction of manufactured nanoparticles. J Clean Prod 14:124–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.03.018
Reinsch BC, Forsberg B, Penn RL et al (2010) Chemical transformations during aging of zerovalent iron nanoparticles in the presence of common groundwater dissolved constituents. Environ Sci Technol 44:3455–3461. https://doi.org/10.1021/es902924h
Rémazeilles C, Refait P (2007) On the formation of β-FeOOH (akaganéite) in chloride-containing environments. Corros Sci 49:844–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CORSCI.2006.06.003
Roberts AL, Gschwend PM (1991) Mechanism of pentachloroethane dehydrochlorination to tetrachloroethylene. Environ Sci Technol 25:76–86
Roberts PV, Goltz MN, Mackay DM (1986) A natural gradient experiment on solute transport in a sand aquifer: 3. Retardation estimates and mass balances for organic solutes. Water Resour Res 22:2047–2058. https://doi.org/10.1029/WR022i013p02047
Roberts AL, Sanborn PN, Gschwend PM (1992) Nucleophilic substitution reactions of dihalomethanes with hydrogen sulfide species. Environ Sci Technol 26:2263–2274. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00035a027
Roberts AL, Totten LA, Arnold WA et al (1996) Reductive elimination of chlorinated ethylenes by zero-valent metals. Environ Sci Technol 30:2654–2659. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9509644
Roden EE, Zachara JM (1996) Microbial reduction of crystalline iron(III) oxides: influence of oxide surface area and potential for cell growth. Environ Sci Technol 30:1618–1628. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9506216
Rodrigues R, Betelu S, Colombano S et al (2017a) Influence of temperature and surfactants on the solubilization of hexachlorobutadiene and hexachloroethane. J Chem Eng Data 62:3252–3260. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jced.7b00320
Rodrigues R, Betelu S, Colombano S et al (2017b) Reductive dechlorination of hexachlorobutadiene by a Pd/Fe microparticle suspension in dissolved lactic acid polymers: degradation mechanism and kinetics. Ind Eng Chem Res 56:12092–12100. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.7b03012
Rosen MJ, Kunjappu JT (2012) Surfactants and interfacial phenomena, 4th edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ
Ruder AM (2006) Potential health effects of occupational chlorinated solvent exposure. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1076:207–227. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1371.050
Saif S, Tahir A, Chen Y (2016) Green synthesis of iron nanoparticles and their environmental applications and implications. Nanomaterials 6:209. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano6110209
Saleh N, Sirk K, Liu Y et al (2007) Surface modifications enhance nanoiron transport and napl targeting in saturated porous media. Environ Eng Sci 24:45–57. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2007.24.45
Saleh N, Kim H-J, Phenrat T et al (2008) Ionic strength and composition affect the mobility of surface-modified Fe0 nanoparticles in water-saturated sand columns. Environ Sci Technol 42:3349–3355. https://doi.org/10.1021/es071936b
San Román I, Galdames A, Alonso ML et al (2016) Effect of coating on the environmental applications of zero valent iron nanoparticles: the lindane case. Sci Total Environ 565:795–803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.034
Sarathy V, Tratnyek PG, Nurmi JT et al (2008) Aging of iron nanoparticles in aqueous solution: effects on structure and reactivity. J Phys Chem C 112:2286–2293. https://doi.org/10.1021/JP0777418
Sarathy V, Salter AJ, Nurmi JT et al (2010) Degradation of 1,2,3-trichloropropane (TCP): hydrolysis, elimination, and reduction by iron and zinc. Environ Sci Technol 44:787–793. https://doi.org/10.1021/es902595j
Scherer MM, Balko BA, Gallagher DA, Tratnyek PG (1998) Correlation analysis of rate constants for dechlorination by zero-valent iron. Environ Sci Technol 32:3026–3033. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9802551
Scherer MM, Balko BA, Tratnyek PG (1999) The role of oxides in reduction reactions at the metal-water interface. In: Sparks DL, Grundl T (eds) Mineral-water interfacial reactions: kinetics and mechanisms. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp 301–322
Scherer M, Cwiertny D, Deeb R, et al (2014) Biologically mediated abiotic degradation of chlorinated ethenes: a new conceptual framework. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program ER01-026
Schlicker O, Ebert M, Fruth M et al (2000) Degradation of TCE with iron: the role of competing chromate and nitrate reduction. Ground Water 38:403–409. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2000.tb00226.x
Schöftner P, Waldner G, Lottermoser W et al (2015) Electron efficiency of nZVI does not change with variation of environmental parameters. Sci Total Environ 535:69–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.05.033
Schreier CG, Reinhard M (1995) Catalytic hydrodehalogenation of chlorinated ethylenes using palladium and hydrogen for the treatment of contaminated water. Chemosphere 31:3475–3487. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(95)00200-R
Schrick B, Blough JL, Jones AD, Mallouk TE (2002) Hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene to hydrocarbons using bimetallic nickel-iron nanoparticles. Chem Mater 14:5140–5147. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm020737i
Schrick B, Hydutsky BW, Blough JL, Mallouk TE (2004) delivery vehicles for zerovalent metal nanoparticles in soil and groundwater. Chem Mater 16:2187–2193. https://doi.org/10.1021/CM0218108
Schwartz FW, Zhang H (2003) Fundamentals of ground water. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ
Schwarzenbach RP, Westall J (1981) Transport of nonpolar organic compounds from surface water to groundwater. Laboratory sorption studies. Environ Sci Technol 15:1360–1367. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00093a009
Schwarzenbach RP, Gschwend PM, Imboden DM (2003) Environmental organic chemistry. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ
Scott TB, Dickinson M, Crane RA et al (2010) The effects of vacuum annealing on the structure and surface chemistry of iron nanoparticles. J Nanopart Res 12:1765–1775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-009-9732-9
Shao H, Butler EC (2007) The influence of iron and sulfur mineral fractions on carbon tetrachloride transformation in model anaerobic soils and sediments. Chemosphere 68:1807–1813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.04.048
Shao Q, Xu C, Wang Y et al (2018) Dynamic interactions between sulfidated zerovalent iron and dissolved Oxygen: mechanistic insights for enhanced chromate removal. Water Res 135:322–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.02.030
Sharma G, Kumar D, Kumar A et al (2016) Revolution from monometallic to trimetallic nanoparticle composites, various synthesis methods and their applications: a review. Mater Sci Eng C 71:1216–1230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2016.11.002
Shen X, Zhao L, Ding Y et al (2011) Foam, a promising vehicle to deliver nanoparticles for vadose zone remediation. J Hazard Mater 186:1773–1780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.12.071
Sherry D (2015) CTC production and consumption. SPARC workshop on “solving the mystery of carbon tetrachloride”, 4–6 October 2015, Zurich, Switzerland
Shi Z, Nurmi JT, Tratnyek PG (2011) Effects of nano zero-valent iron on oxidation−reduction potential. Environ Sci Technol 45:1586–1592. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103185t
Shi Z, Fan D, Johnson RL et al (2015) Methods for characterizing the fate and effects of nano zerovalent iron during groundwater remediation. J Contam Hydrol 181:17–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2015.03.004
Shih Y, Chen Y-C, Chen M et al (2009) Dechlorination of hexachlorobenzene by using nanoscale Fe and nanoscale Pd/Fe bimetallic particles. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem Eng Asp 332:84–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2008.09.031
Shih Y, Chen M-Y, Su Y-F (2011a) Pentachlorophenol reduction by Pd/Fe bimetallic nanoparticles: effects of copper, nickel, and ferric cations. Appl Catal B Environ 105:24–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2011.03.024
Shih Y, Hsu C, Su Y (2011b) Reduction of hexachlorobenzene by nanoscale zero-valent iron: kinetics, pH effect, and degradation mechanism. Sep Purif Technol 76:268–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2010.10.015
Shih Y, Chen M, Su Y, Tso C (2016) Concurrent oxidation and reduction of pentachlorophenol by bimetallic zerovalent Pd/Fe nanoparticles in an oxic water. J Hazard Mater 301:416–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2015.08.059
Shin M-C, Choi H-D, Kim D-H, Baek K (2008) Effect of surfactant on reductive dechlorination of trichloroethylene by zero-valent iron. Desalination 223:299–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.223
Silvester E, Charlet L, Tournassat C et al (2005) Redox potential measurements and mössbauer spectrometry of FeII adsorbed onto FeIII (oxyhydr)oxides. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 69:4801–4815. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GCA.2005.06.013
Sirk KM, Saleh NB, Phenrat T et al (2009) Effect of adsorbed polyelectrolytes on nanoscale zero valent iron particle attachment to soil surface models. Environ Sci Technol 43:3803–3808. https://doi.org/10.1021/es803589t
Sleep BE, Ma Y (1997) Thermal variation of organic fluid properties and impact on thermal remediation feasibility. Soil Sediment Contam 6:281–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/15320389709383566
Smuleac V, Varma R, Sikdar S, Bhattacharyya D (2011) Green synthesis of Fe and Fe/Pd bimetallic nanoparticles in membranes for reductive degradation of chlorinated organics. J Membr Sci 379:131–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2011.05.054
Song H, Carraway ER (2005) Reduction of chlorinated ethanes by nanosized zero-valent iron: kinetics, pathways, and effects of reaction conditions. Environ Sci Technol 39:6237–6245. https://doi.org/10.1021/es048262e
Song H, Carraway ER (2006) Reduction of chlorinated methanes by nano-sized zero-valent iron. Kinetics, pathways, and effect of reaction conditions. Environ Eng Sci 23:272–284. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2006.23.272
Song S, Su Y, Adeleye AS, Zhang Y (2017) Optimal design and characterization of sulfide-modified nanoscale zerovalent iron for diclofenac removal. Appl Catal B Environ 201:211–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2016.07.055
Sriwatanapongse W, Reinhard M, Klug CA (2006) Reductive hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene by palladium-on-alumina catalyst: 13C solid-state NMR study of surface reaction precursors. Langmuir 22:4158–4164. https://doi.org/10.1021/la053087g
Stefaniuk M, Oleszczuk P, Ok YS (2016) Review on nano zerovalent iron (nZVI): from synthesis to environmental applications. Chem Eng J 287:618–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.11.046
Stephenson RM (1992) Mutual solubilities: water-ketones, water-ethers, and water-gasoline-alcohols. J Chem Eng Data 37:80–95. https://doi.org/10.1021/je00005a024
Stroo HF, West MR, Kueper BH et al (2014) In situ bioremediation of chlorinated ethene source zones. In: Chlorinated solvent source zone remediation. Springer, New York, NY, pp 395–457
Stumm W, Sigg L, Sulzberger B (1992) Chemistry of the solid-water interface: processes at the mineral-water and particle-water interface in natural systems. Wiley, New York
Su C, Puls RW (1999) Kinetics of trichloroethene reduction by zerovalent iron and tin: pretreatment effect, apparent activation energy, and intermediate products. Environ Sci Technol 33:163–168. https://doi.org/10.1021/es980481a
Su J, Lin S, Chen Z et al (2011) Dechlorination of p-chlorophenol from aqueous solution using bentonite supported Fe/Pd nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization and kinetics. Desalination 280:167–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.06.067
Su Y, Hsu C-Y, Shih Y (2012) Effects of various ions on the dechlorination kinetics of hexachlorobenzene by nanoscale zero-valent iron. Chemosphere 88:1346–1352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.05.036
Su Y, Zhang Y, Ke H et al (2017) Environmental remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons using biopolymer stabilized iron loaded halloysite nanotubes. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 5:10976–10985. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b02872
Suchomel EJ, Kavanaugh MC, Mercer JW, Johnson PC (2014) The source zone remediation challenge. In: Chlorinated solvent source zone remediation. Springer, New York, NY, pp 29–62
Sun Y-P, Li X, Cao J et al (2006) Characterization of zero-valent iron nanoparticles. Adv Colloid Interf Sci 120:47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CIS.2006.03.001
Sun Y, Li J, Huang T, Guan X (2016) The influences of iron characteristics, operating conditions and solution chemistry on contaminants removal by zero-valent iron: a review. Water Res 100:277–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.05.031
Sun X, Yan Y, Wang M, Han Z (2017) Effect of nanoscale zero-valent iron confined in mesostructure on Escherichia coli. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:24038–24045. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0101-4
Suthersan SS (2002) Natural and enhanced remediation systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Sweeny KH (1980) Treatment of reducible halohydrocarbon containing aqueous stream
Szecsody J, Williams M, Fruchter J, et al (2000) Influence of sediment reduction on TCE degradation, remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds. In: Chemical oxidation and reactive barriers: remediation of chlorinated and recalcitrant compounds. Battelle, Columbus, OH, pp 369–376
Tang F, Xin J, Zheng T et al (2017a) Individual and combined effects of humic acid, bicarbonate and calcium on TCE removal kinetics, aging behavior and electron efficiency of mZVI particles. Chem Eng J 324:324–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.04.144
Tang F, Xin J, Zheng X et al (2017b) Effect of solution pH on aging dynamics and surface structural evolution of mZVI particles: H2 production and spectroscopic/microscopic evidence. Environ Sci Pollut Res:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9976-3
Tee Y-H, Grulke E, Bhattacharyya D (2005) Role of Ni/Fe nanoparticle composition on the degradation of trichloroethylene from water. Ind Eng Chem Res 44:7062–7070. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie050086a
Tiraferri A, Chen KL, Sethi R, Elimelech M (2008) Reduced aggregation and sedimentation of zero-valent iron nanoparticles in the presence of guar gum. J Colloid Interface Sci 324:71–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2008.04.064
Tosco T, Papini MP, Cruz Viggi C, Sethi R (2014) nanoscale zerovalent iron particles for groundwater remediation: a review. J Clean Prod 77:10–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.12.026
Tratnyek PG, Johnson RL (2006) Nanotechnologies for environmental cleanup. Nano Today 1:44–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1748-0132(06)70048-2
Tratnyek PG, Macalady DL (2000) Oxidation-reduction reactions in the aquatic environment. In: Boethling RS, Mackay D (eds) Handbook of property estimation methods for chemicals: environmental health sciences. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 383–415
Tratnyek PG, Scherer MM, Deng B, Hu S (2001) Effects of natural organic matter, anthropogenic surfactants, and model quinones on the reduction of contaminants by zero-valent iron. Water Res 35:4435–4443. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(01)00165-8
Tratnyek PG, Weber EJ, Schwarzenbach RP (2003) Quantitative structure – activity relationships for chemical reductions of organic contaminants. Environ Toxicol Chem 22:1733. https://doi.org/10.1897/01-236
Tratnyek PG, Salter AJ, Nurmi JT, Sarathy V (2010) Environmental applications of zerovalent metals: iron vs. zinc. Nanoscale Mater Chem Environ Appl Am Chem Soc 1045:165–178
Tratnyek PG, Johnson RL, Lowry GV, Brown RA (2014) In situ chemical reduction for source remediation. In: Kueper BH, Stroo HF, Vogel CM, Ward CH (eds) Chlorinated solvent source zone remediation. Springer, New York, NY, pp 307–351
Travis C, Doty C (1990) ES&T views: can contaminated aquifers at superfund sites be remediated? Environ Sci Technol 24:1464–1466. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00080a600
Uegami M, Kawano J, Okita T, et al (2002) Iron particles for purifying contaminated soil or ground water, process for producing the iron particles, purifying agent comprising the iron particles, process for producing the purifying agent and method of purifying contaminated soil or ground water
Velimirovic M, Chen H, Simons Q, Bastiaens L (2012) Reactivity recovery of guar gum coupled mZVI by means of enzymatic breakdown and rinsing. J Contam Hydrol 142–143:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCONHYD.2012.09.003
Velimirovic M, Larsson P-O, Simons Q, Bastiaens L (2013a) Impact of carbon, oxygen and sulfur content of microscale zerovalent iron particles on its reactivity towards chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons. Chemosphere 93:2040–2045. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2013.07.034
Velimirovic M, Larsson P-O, Simons Q, Bastiaens L (2013b) Reactivity screening of microscale zerovalent irons and iron sulfides towards different CAHs under standardized experimental conditions. J Hazard Mater 252–253:204–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.02.047
Velimirovic M, Carniato L, Simons Q et al (2014) Corrosion rate estimations of microscale zerovalent iron particles via direct hydrogen production measurements. J Hazard Mater 270:18–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.01.034
Velimirovic M, Simons Q, Bastiaens L (2015) Use of CAH-degrading bacteria as test-organisms for evaluating the impact of fine zerovalent iron particles on the anaerobic subsurface environment. Chemosphere 134:338–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHEMOSPHERE.2015.04.068
Velimirovic M, Schmid D, Wagner S et al (2016) Agar agar-stabilized milled zerovalent iron particles for in situ groundwater remediation. Sci Total Environ 563–564:713–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2015.11.007
Velimirovic M, Larsson P-O, Simons Q, Bastiaens L (2017) Effect of boron on reactivity and apparent corrosion rate of microscale zerovalent irons. J Environ Chem Eng 5:1892–1898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2017.03.029
Velimirovic M, Auffan M, Carniato L et al (2018) Effect of field site hydrogeochemical conditions on the corrosion of milled zerovalent iron particles and their dechlorination efficiency. Sci Total Environ 618:1619–1627. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2017.10.002
Verce MF, Ulrich RL, Freedman DL (2000) Characterization of an isolate that uses vinyl chloride as a growth substrate under aerobic conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:3535–3542
Verce MF, Ulrich RL, Freedman DL (2001) Transition from cometabolic to growth-linked biodegradation of vinyl chloride by a pseudomonas sp. isolated on ethene. Environ Sci Technol 35:4242–4251. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES002064F
Vermeul VR, Szecsody JE, Williams MD, et al (2000) In situ redox manipulation proof-of-principle test at the fort lewis logistics center: final report. PNNL-13357 Final Report, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Richland, WA
Verschueren K (1983) Handbook of environmental data on organic chemicals, 2nd edn. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY
Vogel TM, McCarty PL (1985) Biotransformation of tetrachloroethylene to trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene, vinyl chloride, and carbon dioxide under methanogenic conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol 49:1080–1083
Vogel TM, Criddle CS, McCarty PL (1987) Transformations of halogenated aliphatic compounds. Environ Sci Technol 21:722–736. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00162a001
Vogel M, Nijenhuis I, Lloyd J et al (2018) Combined chemical and microbiological degradation of tetrachloroethene during the application of carbo-iron at a contaminated field site. Sci Total Environ 628–629:1027–1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.310
Wagner S, Gondikas A, Neubauer E et al (2014) Spot the difference: engineered and natural nanoparticles in the environment-release, behavior, and fate. Angew Chemie Int Ed Engl 53:12398–12419. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201405050
Wang J, Farrell J (2003) Investigating the role of atomic hydrogen on chloroethene reactions with iron using tafel analysis and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Environ Sci Technol 37:3891–3896. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0264605
Wang S, Mulligan CN (2004) An evaluation of surfactant foam technology in remediation of contaminated soil. Chemosphere 57:1079–1089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.08.019
Wang C-B, Zhang W (1997) Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environ Sci Technol 31:2154–2156. https://doi.org/10.1021/es970039c
Wang C, Baer DR, Amonette JE et al (2009a) Morphology and electronic structure of the oxide shell on the surface of iron nanoparticles. J Am Chem Soc 131:8824–8832. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja900353f
Wang X, Chen C, Chang Y, Liu H (2009b) Dechlorination of chlorinated methanes by Pd/Fe bimetallic nanoparticles. J Hazard Mater 161:815–823. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2008.04.027
Wang Z, Peng P, Huang W (2009c) Dechlorination of γ-hexachlorocyclohexane by zero-valent metallic iron. J Hazard Mater 166:992–997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.11.106
Wang X, Zhu M, Liu H et al (2013) Modification of Pd–Fe nanoparticles for catalytic dechlorination of 2,4-dichlorophenol. Sci Total Environ 449:157–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.01.008
Wang X, Le L, Alvarez PJJ et al (2015) Synthesis and characterization of green agents coated Pd/Fe bimetallic nanoparticles. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 50:297–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2014.12.030
Wang S, Chen S, Wang Y et al (2016) Integration of organohalide-respiring bacteria and nanoscale zero-valent iron (Bio-nZVI-RD): a perfect marriage for the remediation of organohalide pollutants? Biotechnol Adv 34:1384–1395. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOTECHADV.2016.10.004
Wang X, Cong S, Wang P et al (2017) Novel green micelles pluronic F-127 coating performance on nano zero-valent iron: enhanced reactivity and innovative kinetics. Sep Purif Technol 174:174–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2016.09.009
Warren KD, Arnold RG, Bishop TL et al (1995) Kinetics and mechanism of reductive dehalogenation of carbon tetrachloride using zero-valence metals. J Hazard Mater 41:217–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3894(94)00117-Y
Watanabe K, Manefield M, Lee M, Kouzuma A (2009) Electron shuttles in biotechnology. Curr Opin Biotechnol 20:633–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2009.09.006
Weerasooriya R, Dharmasena B (2001) Pyrite-assisted degradation of trichloroethene (TCE). Chemosphere 42:389–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00160-0
Wei Y-T, Wu S-C, Chou C-M et al (2010) Influence of nanoscale zero-valent iron on geochemical properties of groundwater and vinyl chloride degradation: a field case study. Water Res 44:131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.09.012
Weng X, Guo M, Luo F, Chen Z (2017) One-step green synthesis of bimetallic Fe/Ni nanoparticles by eucalyptus leaf extract: biomolecules identification, characterization and catalytic activity. Chem Eng J 308:904–911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.09.134
Wiedemeier TH, Swanson MA, Moutoux DE et al (1998) Technical protocol for evaluating natural attenuation of chlorinated solvents in ground water. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC
Wiedemeier TH, Rifai HS, Newell CJ, Wilson JT (1999) Natural attenuation of fuels and chlorinated solvents in the subsurface. Wiley, New York
Wiesner MR, Bottero J-Y (2007) Environmental nanotechnology: applications and impacts of nanomaterials. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY
Wiesner MR, Lowry GV, Alvarez P et al (2006) Assessing the risks of manufactured nanomaterials. Environ Sci Technol 40:4336–4345. https://doi.org/10.1021/es062726m
Wilhelm S (1988) Galvanic corrosion caused by corrosion products. In: Hack HP (ed) Galvanic corrosion. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, pp 23–34
Wilkin RT, Puls RW, Sewell GW (2003) Long-term performance of permeable reactive barriers using zero-valent iron: geochemical and microbiological effects. Ground Water 41:493–503. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2003.tb02383.x
Williams AGB, Gregory KB, Parkin GF, Scherer MM (2005) Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine transformation by biologically reduced ferrihydrite: evolution of Fe mineralogy, surface area, and reaction rates. Environ Sci Technol 39:5183–5189. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES0490525
Wu Y, Wu Z, Huang X et al (2015) Synergistical enhancement by Ni2+ and tween-80 of nanoscale zerovalent iron dechlorination of 2,2’,5,5’-tetrachlorinated biphenyl in aqueous solution. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:555–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3278-9
Xie Y, Cwiertny DM (2010) Use of dithionite to extend the reactive lifetime of nanoscale zero-valent iron treatment systems. Environ Sci Technol 44:8649–8655. https://doi.org/10.1021/es102451t
Xie Y, Cwiertny DM (2013) Chlorinated solvent transformation by palladized zerovalent iron: mechanistic insights from reductant loading studies and solvent kinetic isotope effects. Environ Sci Technol 47:7940–7948. https://doi.org/10.1021/es401481a
Xie Y, Dong H, Zeng G et al (2017) The interactions between nanoscale zero-valent iron and microbes in the subsurface environment: a review. J Hazard Mater 321:390–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2016.09.028
Xiong Z, Lai B, Yang P (2018) Enhancing the efficiency of zero valent iron by electrolysis: performance and reaction mechanism. Chemosphere 194:189–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.167
Xu J, Bhattacharyya D (2006) Fe/Pd nanoparticle immobilization in microfiltration membrane pores: synthesis, characterization, and application in the dechlorination of polychlorinated biphenyls. Ind Eng Chem Res 46:2348–2359. https://doi.org/10.1021/IE0611498
Xu Y, Zhang W (2000) Subcolloidal Fe/Ag particles for reductive dehalogenation of chlorinated benzenes. Ind Eng Chem Res 39:2238–2244. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie9903588
Xu J, Sheng T, Hu Y et al (2013) Adsorption–dechlorination of 2,4-dichlorophenol using two specified MWCNTs-stabilized Pd/Fe nanocomposites. Chem Eng J 219:162–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2013.01.010
Xu Y, Wang C, Hou J et al (2017) Application of zero valent iron coupling with biological process for wastewater treatment: a review. Rev Environ Sci Bio/Technology 16:667–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-017-9445-y
Xue D, Sethi R (2012) Viscoelastic gels of guar and xanthan gum mixtures provide long-term stabilization of iron micro- and nanoparticles. J Nanopart Res 14:1239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-012-1239-0
Yan W, Herzing AA, Kiely CJ, Zhang W (2010a) Nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI): aspects of the core-shell structure and reactions with inorganic species in water. J Contam Hydrol 118:96–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2010.09.003
Yan W, Herzing AA, Li X et al (2010b) Structural evolution of Pd-doped nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) in aqueous media and implications for particle aging and reactivity. Environ Sci Technol 44:4288–4294. https://doi.org/10.1021/es100051q
Yan W, Lien H-L, Koel BE, Zhang W (2013) Iron nanoparticles for environmental clean-up: recent developments and future outlook. Environ Sci Process Impacts 15:63–77. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2EM30691C
Yang Y, Chen T, Sumona M et al (2017) Utilization of iron sulfides for wastewater treatment: a critical review. Rev Environ Sci Bio/Technology 16:289–308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-017-9432-3
You G, Wang P, Hou J et al (2017) The use of zero-valent iron (ZVI)–microbe technology for wastewater treatment with special attention to the factors influencing performance: a critical review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 47:877–907. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2017.1334457
Yuan S, Wen H, Wu X et al (2010a) Effect of nonionic and cationic surfactants on the dechlorination kinetics and products distribution of various polychlorinated benzenes by Cu/Fe particles. Sep Purif Technol 74:130–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2010.05.015
Yuan S, Zheng Z, Meng X-Z et al (2010b) Surfactant mediated HCB dechlorination in contaminated soils and sediments by micro and nanoscale Cu/Fe particles. Geoderma 159:165–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.07.008
Zabetakis KM, Niño de Guzmán GT, Torrents A, Yarwood S (2015) Toxicity of zero-valent iron nanoparticles to a trichloroethylene-degrading groundwater microbial community. J Environ Sci Heal Part A 50:794–805. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2015.1019796
Zepp RG, Wolfe N (1987) Abiotic transformation of organic chemicals at the particle/water interface. In: Stumm W (ed) Aquatic surface chemistry: chemical processes at the particle–water interface. Wiley, New York, NY, pp 423–455
Zhang W (2003) Nanoscale iron particles for environmental remediation: an overview. J Nanopart Res 5:323–332. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025520116015
Zhang XG (2011) Galvanic corrosion. In: Revie RW (ed) Uhlig’s corrosion handbook, 3rd edn. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp 123–143
Zhang W, Elliott DW (2006) Applications of iron nanoparticles for groundwater remediation. Remediat J 16:7–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/rem.20078
Zhang W, Wang C-B, Lien H-L (1998) Treatment of chlorinated organic contaminants with nanoscale bimetallic particles. Catal Today 40:387–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-5861(98)00067-4
Zhang M, He F, Zhao D, Hao X (2011) Degradation of soil-sorbed trichloroethylene by stabilized zero valent iron nanoparticles: effects of sorption, surfactants, and natural organic matter. Water Res 45:2401–2414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.01.028
Zhang M, Bacik DB, Roberts CB, Zhao D (2013) Catalytic hydrodechlorination of trichloroethylene in water with supported CMC-stabilized palladium nanoparticles. Water Res 47:3706–3715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.04.024
Zhao D, Zheng Y, Li M et al (2014) Catalytic dechlorination of 2,4-dichlorophenol by Ni/Fe nanoparticles prepared in the presence of ultrasonic irradiation. Ultrason Sonochem 21:1714–1721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2014.03.002
Zhao X, Liu W, Cai Z et al (2016) An overview of preparation and applications of stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles for soil and groundwater remediation. Water Res 100:245–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.05.019
Zheng Z, Yuan S, Liu Y et al (2009) Reductive dechlorination of hexachlorobenzene by Cu/Fe bimetal in the presence of nonionic surfactant. J Hazard Mater 170:895–901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.052
Zhou Z, Ruan W, Huang H et al (2016) Fabrication and characterization of Fe/Ni nanoparticles supported by polystyrene resin for trichloroethylene degradation. Chem Eng J 283:730–739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.07.076
Zhu B-W, Lim T-T (2007) Catalytic reduction of chlorobenzenes with Pd/Fe nanoparticles: reactive sites, catalyst stability, particle aging, and regeneration. Environ Sci Technol 41:7523–7529. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES0712625
Zhu N, Luan H, Yuan S et al (2010) Effective dechlorination of HCB by nanoscale Cu/Fe particles. J Hazard Mater 176:1101–1105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.11.092
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the ADEME AMI SILPHES project and the BRGM project MULTISCALEXPER PSO3 of D3E division for financial support for writing this chapter. The case study was supported by ADEME (French Environment and Energy Management Agency) in the framework of Eco-Industries 2011 program (project DECHLORED, contract no. 1172C0034) and received financial support by BRGM research division. The authors acknowledge ClÕment ZORNIG who elaborated and provided the Fig. 6.5.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rodrigues, R., Betelu, S., Colombano, S., Tzedakis, T., Masselot, G., Ignatiadis, I. (2020). In Situ Chemical Reduction of Chlorinated Organic Compounds. In: van Hullebusch, E., Huguenot, D., Pechaud, Y., Simonnot, MO., Colombano, S. (eds) Environmental Soil Remediation and Rehabilitation. Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a Sustainable Future. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40348-5_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40348-5_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-40347-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-40348-5
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)