Zusammenfassung
Infektionen, Aktivierung der Inflammationskaskaden, Überdehnung des Uterus, Fehlbildungen des Uterus, mütterlicher Stress sowie verschiedene Formen der Plazentapathologie sind die Hauptursachen von spontanen Frühgeburten. Davon abzugrenzen sind die medizinisch indizierten Frühgeburten nach einer indizierten Schwangerschaftsbeendigung wegen mütterlicher oder fetaler Pathologie.
Die Behandlung einer vorzeitigen Wehentätigkeit mittels der Tokolyse ermöglicht eine kurzfristige Schwangerschaftsverlängerung zur Induktion der Lungenreifung durch Verabreichung von Glukokortikoiden und Verlegung in ein Perinatalzentrum. Für Frühgeborene, insbesondere sehr kleine Frühgeborene mit einem Geburtsgewicht von <1.500 g, hat sich in den letzten Jahren die Prognose stark verbessert. Gründe sind Zentralisierung von Hochrisikogeburten, eine verbesserte interdisziplinäre Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung der neonatalen Intensivmedizin.
Literatur
ACOG Committee Opinion (2010) Magnesium sulfate before anticipated preterm birth for neuroprotection. Obstet Gynecol 115:669–671, Committee opinion no. 455
ACOG Practice Bulletin (2003) Cervical insufficiency. Obstet Gynecol 102:1091–1099
ACOG Practice Bulletin (2012a) Management of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 119:1308–1317, Practice bulletin no. 127
ACOG Practice Bulletin (2012b) Prediction and prevention of preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol 120:964–973, Practice bulletin no. 130
Albertsen K, Andersen AM, Olsen J et al (2004) Alcohol consumption during pregnancy and the risk of preterm delivery. Am J Epidemiol 159:155–161
Albrechtsen S, Rasmussen S, Thorensen S, Irgens LM, Iversen OE (2008) Pregnancy outcome in women before and after cervical conisation: population-based cohort study. BMJ 337:a1343
Almario CV, Seligman NS, Dysart KC et al (2009) Risk factors for preterm birth among opiate-addicted gravid women in a methadone treatment program. Am J Obstet Gynecol 201(3):326.e1
Altabef KM, Spencer IT, Zinberg S (1992) Intravenous nitroglycerine tot uterine relaxation of an inverted uterus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 166:1237–1238
Althuisius SM, van Geijn HP (2005) Strategies for prevention: cervical cerclage. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 112(S1):51–56
Althuisius SM, Dekker GA, Hummel P et al (2001) Final resuts of the Cervical Incompetence Prevention Randomized Cerclage Trial (CIPRACT): therapeutic cerclage with bed rest versus bed rest alone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 185:1106–1112
Ananth CV, Vintzileos AM (2006) Epidemiology of preterm birth and its clinical subtypes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 12:773–782
Ancel PY, Bréart G (2000) Epidemiologie und Risikofaktoren der Frühgeburtlichkeit. Gynakologe 33:356–360
Andrews WW, Copper R, Hauth JC et al (2000) Second-trimester cervical ultrasound: associations with increased risk for recurrent early spontaneous delivery. Obstet Gynecol 95:222–226
Andrews WW, Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC, Cliver SP, Copper R, Conner M (2006) Interconceptional antibiotics to prevent spontaneous preterm birth: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 194:617–623
Annells MF, Hart PH, Mulligan CG et al (2004) Interleukins-1, -4, -6, -10, tumor necrosis factor, transforming growth factor-beta, FAS, and mannose-binding protein C gene polymorphisms in Australian women: risk of preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 191:2056–2067
Anotayanonth S, Subhedar NV, Garner P et al. (2004) Betamimetics for inhibiting preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD004352
Arabin B, Hübener M, van Eyk J (2001) Zervixinsuffizienz – diagnostische, präventive und therapeutische Aspekte. Gynakologe 34:715–725
Ashwood PJ, Crowther CA, Willson KJ et al (2006) Neonatal adrenal function after repeat dose prenatal corticosteroids: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 194(3):861
AWMF-Leitlinie 024–019, 2008 Kommentar von S. Schmidt (2009) Z Geburtsh Neonatol 69: 391–394
Badeyan G, Weislo M, Bussière E et al (2000) La situation périnatale en France en 1998. Etudes Résultats 73:1–8
Barkai G, Mashiach S, Reichman B, Modan M, Meir E, Goldman B (1986) Effect of blood contamination an the fluorescence polarization value of amniotic fluid lamellar bodies. Obstet Gynecol 68:379–381
Barth WH, Yeomas ER, Hankins GDV (1990) Emergent cerclage. Surg Gynecol Obstet 170:323–326
Becher N, Hein M, Danielsen CC et al (2004) Matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in the cervical mucus plug at term of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 191(4):1232–1239
Belej-Rak T, Okun N, Windrim R et al (2003) Effectiveness of cervical cerclage for a sonographically shortened cervix: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189:1679–1687
Berger TM, Büttiker V, Fauchère J-C et al (2002) Empfehlungen zur Betreuung von Frühgeborenen an der Grenze der Lebensfähigkeit (Gestationsalter 22–26 SSW). Schweiz Ärztez 93:1589–1595
Berger TM, Bernet V, El Alama S et al (2011) Perinatal care at the limit of viability between 22 and 26 completed weeks of gestation in Switzerland. 2011 revision of the Swiss recommendations. Swiss Med Wkly 18:141
Berghella V, Tolosa JE, Kuhlman K et al (1997) Cervical ultrasonographic compared to manual examination as a predictor of preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 177:723–730
Berghella V, Haas S, Chervoneva I, Hyslop T (2002) Patients with prior second-trimester loss: prophylactic cerclage or serial transvaginal sonograms? Am J Obstet Gynecol 187:747
Berghella V, Odibo AO, To MS et al (2005) Cerclage for short cervix on ultrasonography. Obstet Gynecol 106:181–189
Berghella V, Baxter JK, Hendrix NW (2013) Cervical assessment by ultrasound for preventing preterm delivery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:CD007235
Berkowitz GS, Papiernik E (1993) Epidemiology of preterm birth. Epidemiol Rev 15:414–443
Bisits A, Madseen G, Knox M et al (2004) The randomized nitric oxide tocolysis trial (RNOTT) for the treatment of preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 191:683–690
Bloom SL, Yost NP, Mc Intire DD et al (2001) Recurrence of preterm birth in singleton and twin pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 98:379–785
Bloomfield FH, Oliver MH, Hawkins P et al (2004) Periconceptional undernutrition in sheep accelerates maturation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-axis in late gestation. Endocrinology 145:4278–4285
Boer K, Smit BJ, van Huis AM et al (1994) Substance use in pregnancy: do we care? Acta Paediatr Suppl 404:65–71
Bourgeois FJ, Thiagarajah S, Harpert GM et al (1986) Profound hypotension complicating magnesium therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 154:919–920
BQS Bundesgeschäftsstelle Qualitätssicherung gGmbH (2009) BQS-Bundesauswertung 2008 Geburtshilfe http://www.bqs-outcome.de/2008/ergebnisse/leistungsbereiche/geburtshilfe/buaw/bu_Gesamt_16n1-GEBH_2008.pdf
Bracero LA, Leikin E, Kirshenbaum N et al (1991) Comparison of nifedipine and ritodrine for the treatment of preterm labor. Am J Perinatol 8:365–369
Brocklehurst P, Gordon A, Heatley E et al (2013) Antibiotics for treating bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:CD000262
Brownfoot FC, Gagliardi DI, Bain E et al (2013) Different corticosteroids and regimens for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 8:CD006764
Buhimschi IA, Dussably L, Buhimschi CS et al (2004) Physical and biomechanical characteristics of rat cervical ripening are not consistent with increased collagenase activity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 191(5):1695–1704
Bulstra-Ramakers MT, Huisjes JH, Visser GH (1995) The effects of 3 g eicosapentaenoic acid daily on recurerence of intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy induced hypertension. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 102:123–126
Carey JC, Klebanoff MA, Hauth JC et al (2000) Metronidazol to prevent preterm delivery in pregnant women with asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. N Engl J Med 342:534–540
Caritis SN, Chiao JP, Moore JJ, Ward SM (1987) Myometrial desensitization after ritodrine infusion. Am J Physiol 253:E410–E417
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – CDC (2010) Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. MMWR Recomm Rep 51(RR-6):1
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – CDC (www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/04facts/birthrates.htm) Zugegriffen im 2015
Challis JRG, Mathhews SG, Gibb W, Lye S (2000) Endocrine and paracrine regulation of birth at term and preterm. Endocr Res 21:514–550
Chien EK, Macgregor C (2003) Expression and regulation of the rat prostaglandin E2 receptor type 4 (EP4) in pregnant cervical tissue. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189(5):1501–1510
Cibils LA, Karrison T, Brown L (1994) Factors influencing neonatal outcome in the very-low-birth-weight fetus (<1500 g) with a breech presentation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 171:35–42
Clesham GJ (1994) Beta adrenergic agonists and pulmonary oedema in preterm labour. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 308(6923):260–262
Conde-Agudelo A, Rosas-Bermúdez A, Kafury-Goeta AC (2006) Birth spacing and risk of adverse perinatal outcomes: a meta-analysis. JAMA 295(15):1809
Cram LF, Zapata MJ, Toy EC, Baker B (2002) Genitourinary infections and their association with preterm labor. Am Fam Physician 65:241–248
Creasy RK, Gummer BA, Liggins GC (1980) System for predicting spontaneous preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol 55:692–695
Crider KS, Whitehead N, Buus RM (2005) Genetic variation associated with preterm birth: a HuGE review. Genet Med 7:593–604
Crowther CA, Han S (2010) Hospitalisation and bed rest for multiple pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 7:CD000110
Crowther CA, Harding JE (2007) Repeat dosis of prenatal corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm birth for preventing neonatal respiratory disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007:CD003935
Crowther C, Alfirevic Z, Haslam R (1999) Prenatal thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) for preterm birth (Cochrane review). In: The cochrane library, Issue 3. Update Software, Oxford
Crowther CA, Haslam RR, Hiller JE et al (2006) Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome after repeat exposure to antenatal corticosteroids: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 367:1913
Crowther CA, Doyle LW, Haslam RR et al (2007) Outcome at 2 years of age after repeat doses of antenatal corticosteroids. N Engl J Med 357:1179
Cunze T, Rath W, Osmers R et al (1995) Magnesium and calcium concentration in the pregnant and non-pregnant myometrium. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 48:9–13
Da Fonseca EB, Bittar RE, Carvalho MH et al (2003) Prophylactic administration of progesterone by vaginal suppository to reduce the incidence of spontaneous preterm birth in women at increased risk: a randomized placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188:419–424
Dalence CR, Bowie LJ, Dohnal JC, Farrell EE, Neerhof MG (1995) Amniotic fluid lamellar body count: a rapid and reliable fetal lung maturity test. Obstet Gynecol 86:235–239
Davey MA, Watson L, Rayner JA et al (2011) Risk scoring systems for predicting preterm birth with the aim of reducing associated adverse outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 11:CD004902
Davis JL, Ray-Mazurnder S, Hobel Q et al (1990) Uterine leiomyomas in pregnancy: a prospective study. Obstet Gynecol 75:41–44
De Carolis S, Fatigante G, Ferrazzani S et al (2001) Uterine myomectomy in pregnant women. Fetal Diagn Ther 16(2):116
de Heus R, Mol BW, Erwich JJ et al (2009) Adverse drug reactions to tocolytic treatment for preterm labour: prospective cohort study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 338:b744
de Weger FJ, Hukkelhoven CW, Serroyen J et al (2011) Advanced maternal age, short interpregnancy interval, and perinatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 204(5):421.e1-9
DeFranco EA, Lewis DF, Odibo AO (2013) Improving the screening accuracy for preterm labor: is the combination of fetal fibronectin and cervical length in symptomatic patients a useful predictor of preterm birth? A systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 208:233.e1-6
Deulofeut R, Sola A, Lee B et al (2005) The impact of vaginal delivery in premature infants weighing less than 1251 grams. Obstet Gynecol 15:525–531
DiFiore JW, Wilson JM (1994) Lung development. Semin Pediatr Surg 3:221–232
Dodd JM, Crowther CA, Middleton P (2012) Oral betamimetics formaintenance therapy after threatened preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 12:CD003927
Dodd JM, Jones L, Flenady V et al (2013) Prenatal administration of progesterone for preventing preterm birth in women considered to be at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 7:CD004947
Dolan SM, Gross SJ, Merkatz IR et al (2007) The contribution of birth defects to preterm birth and low birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 110:318
Dole N, Savitz DA, Hertz-Picciotto I (2003) Maternal stress and preterm birth. Am J Epidemiol 157:14
Doret M, Mellier G, Benchaib M et al (2002) In vitro study of tocolytic effect of rofecoxib, a specific cyclo-oxygenase 2 inhibitor. Comparison and combination with other tocolytic agents. Br J Obstet Gynecol 109:983–988
Doyle LW, Crowther CA, Middleton P et al (2009) Magnesium sulphate for women at risk of preterm birth for neuroprotection of the fetus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:CD004661
Drakeley AJ, Roberts D, Alfirevic Z (2003) Cervical stitch (cerclage) for preventing pregnancy loss in women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1):CD 003253
Egerman RS, Mercer BM, Doss JL et al (1998) A randomized controlled trial of oral and intramuscular dexamethasone in the prevention of neonatal respiratoy distress syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 179:1120–1123
El-Bastawissi AY, Williams MA, Riley DE et al (2000) Amniotic fluid interleukin–6 and preterm delivery: a review. Obstet Gynecol 95:1056–1064
Elimiam A, Figueroa R, Spitzer AR et al (2003) Antenatal cortocosteroids: are incomplete courses beneficial? Obstet Gynecol 102:352–355
Elimian A, Gary D, Figueroa R et al (2007) Antenatal betamethasone compared with dexmethasone (betacode trial): a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 110:26
El-Sayed YY, Riley ET, Holbrook RH Jr, Cohen SE, Chitkara U, Druzin ML (1999) Randomized comparison of intravenous nitroglycerin and magnesium sulfate for treatment of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 93:79–83
European Medicines Agency – EMS (2013) Restrictions on use of short-acting beta-agonists in obstetric indications – CMDh endorses PRAC recommendations. EMA/565019/2013
Engel SA, Erichsen HC, Savitz DA, Thorp J, Chanock SJ, Olshan AF (2005) Risk of spontaneous preterm birth is associated with common proinflammatory cytokine polymorphisms. Epidemiology 16:469–477
Eschenbach DA, Nugent RP, Rao RV et al (1991) A randomized placebo-controlled trial of erythromycin for the trearment of ureplasma urealyticum to prevent premature delivery. The Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 164:734
Esplin MS (2006) Preterm birth: a review of genetic factors and future directions for study. Obstet Gynecol Surv 61(12):800–806
Esplin MS, Fausett MB, Smith S et al (2000) Multiple courses of antenatal steroids are associated with a delay in long-term psychomotor development in children with birth weights <1500 g. Am J Obstet Gynecol 182:S24
Esplin MS, O’Brien E, Fraser A et al (2008) Estimating recurrence of spontaneous preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol 112:516
Fausett MB, Esplin MS, Yoder B et al (2000) Indomethacin therapy for preterm labor prolongs gestation and is not associated with increased neonatal complications in infants delivered prior to 32 weeks. Am J Obstet Gynecol 182:48
Ferguson JE 2nd, Dyson DC, Schutz et al (1990) A comparison of tocolysis with nifedipine or ritodrine: analysis of efficacy and maternal, fetal and neonatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 163:105–111
Forde R (1993) Clinical assessment of pregnant women’s psychological conditions, prematurity and birth weight. Scand J Prim Health Care 11:130–134
French NP, Hagan R, Evans SF et al (2004) Repeated antenatal corticosteroids: effects on cerebral palsy and childhood behaviour. Am J Obstet Gynecol 190:588–595
Fuchs AR, Fuchs F, Husslein P et al (1984) Oxytocin receptors in the human uterus during pregnancy and parturition. Am J Obstet Gynecol 150:734–741
Garite TJ, Kurtzman J, Maurel K et al (2009) Impact of a 'rescue course' of antenatal corticosteroids: a multicenter randomized placebo-controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 200(3):248.e1
Gatault P, Genee O, Legras A et al (2008) Calcium-channel blockers: an increasing cause of pulmonary edema during tocolytic therapy. Int J Cardiol 130:e123–e124
Gazaway P, Mullins CL (1986) Prevention of preterm labor and premature rupture of membranes. Clin Obstet Gynecol 29:835–840
Getahun D, Oyelese Y, Salihu AM, Ananth CV (2006) Previous cesarean delivery and risk factors of placenta praevia and placental abruption. Obstet Gynecol 107:771–778
Gluck L, Kulovich MV, Borer RC, Brenner PH, Anderson GG, Spellacy WN (1971) Diagnosis of the respiratory distress syndrome by amniocentesis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 109:440–445
Goepfer AR, Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW et al (2001) The preterm prediction study: association between cervical interleukin 6 concentration and spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 184:483–488
Golan A, Langer R, Wexler S et al (1990) Cervical cerclage – its role in the pregnant anomalous uterus. Int J Fertil 35:164–170
Goldenberg RL (2002) The management of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 100:1020–1037
Goldenberg RL, Cliver SP, Bronstein J et al (1994) Bed rest in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 84:131–136
Goldenberg RL, Iams JD, Miodovnik et al (1996) The preterm prediction study: risk factors in twin gestation. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. Am Obstet Gynecol 175:1047–1053
Goldenberg RL, Iams JD, Mercer BM et al (2003) What we have learned about the predictors of preterm birth. Semin Perinatol 27:185–193
Goldenberg RL, Mwatha A, Read JS et al (2006) The HPTN 024 study: the efficacy of antibiotics to prevent chorioamnionitis and preterm birth. Am Obstet Gynecol 194:650
Gomez R, Galasso M, Romero R et al (1994) Ultrsonographic examination of the uterine cervix is better than cervical digital examination as a predictor of the likelihood of premature delivery in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 171:956–964
Gomez R, Romero R, Medina L et al (2005) Cervical fibronectin improves the prediction of preterm delivery based on sonographic cervical length in patients with preterm uterine contractions and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 192:350–359
Goncalves LF, Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R (2002) Intrauterine infection and prematurity. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 8:3–13
Goodlin RC (1987) Surgical treatment of patients with hourglass shaped or ruptured membranes before the 25th week of gestation. Surg Gynecol Obstet 165:410–412
Goodwin TM, Valenzuela G, Siver H et al (1996) Treatment of preterm labor with the oxytocin antagonist atosiban. Am J Perinatol 13:143
Goya M, Pratcorona L, Merced C et al (2012) Cervical pessary in pregnant women with a short cervix (PECEP): an open-label randomised controlled trial. Lancet 379(9828):1800
Granger S, Hollingsworth M, Weston A (1985) A comparison of several calciumantagonists on uterine vascular and cardiac muscles from the rat. Br J Pharmacol 85:255
Grant A (2001) Elective or selective caesarean of the small baby? A systemic review of the controlled trials. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
Gray SE, Rodis JF, Lettieri L et al (1994) Effect of intravenous magnesium sulfate on the biophysical profile of the healthy preterm fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 170:1131–1135
Grimes-Dennis J, Berghella V (2007) Cervical length and prediction of preterm delivery. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 19:191
Groom KM, Shennan AH, Jones BA et al (2005) TOCOX-A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of rofecoxib (a COX-2 specific prostaglandin inhibitor) for the prevention of preterm delivery in women at high risk. Br J Obstet Gynecol 112:725–730
Gross I, Ballard PL, Ballard RA et al (1983) Corticosteroid stimulation of phosphatidylcholine synthesis in cultured fetal rabbit lung; evidence for de novo protein synthesis mediated by glucocorticoid receptors. Endocrinology 112:829–837
Gross G, Imamura T, Vogt SK et al (2000) Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 prevents inflammation-mediated preterm labor in the mouse. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 287:R1415–R1423
Guinn DA, Atkinson MW, Sullivan L et al (2001) Single vs weekly courses of antenatal corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm delivery: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 286:1581–1587
Guise JM, Mahon SM, Aickin M et al (2001) Screening for bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. Am J Prev Med 20:62–72
Guzman ER, Forster JK, Vintzileos AM et al (1998) Pregnancy outcome in women treated with elective versus ultrasound-indicated cervical cerclage. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 12:323–327
Haas JS, Fuentes-Afflick E, Stewart AL et al (2005) Prepregnancy health status and the risk of preterm delivery. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 159:58
Haas DM, Imperiale TF, Kirkpatrick PR et al (2009) Tocolytic therapy – a meta-analysis and decision analysis. Obstet Gynecol 113:585–594
Haas DM, Caldwell DM, Kirkpatrick P et al (2012) Tocolytic therapy for preterm delivery: systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ 345:e6226
Hallman M, Feldman BH, Kirkpatrick E, Gluck L (1977) Absence of phosphatidylglycerol (PG) in respiratory distress syndrome in the newborn. Study of the minor surfactant phospholipids in newborns. Pediatr Res 11:714–720
Harding JE, Pang JM, Knight DB et al (2001) Do antenatal corticosteroids help in the setting of preterm rupture of membranes? Am J Obstet Gynecol 184:131–139
Harger JH (2002) Cerclage and cervical insufficiency: an evidence-based analysis. Obstet Gynecol 100:1313–1327
Hayes E, Moroz L, Pizzi L, Baxter J (2007) A cost decision analysis of 4 tocolytic drugs. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197:383
Hayes EJ, Paul DA, Stahl GE et al (2008) Effect of antenatal corticosteroids on survival of neonates born at 23 weeks of gestation. Obstet Gynecol 111:921
Haynes LE, Griffiths MR, Hyde RE et al (2001) Dexamethasone induces limited apoptosis and extensive sublethal damage to specific subregions of the striatum and hippocampus: implications for mood disorders. Neuroscience 104:57
Hedegaard M, Henriksen TB, Sabroe S et al (1996) The relationship between psychological distress during pregnancy and birth weight for gestational age. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 75:32
Hegaard HK, Hedegaard M, Damm P et al (2008) Leisure time physical activity is associated with a reduced risk of preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 198:180
Henriksen TB, Hedegaard M, Secher NJ et al (1995) Standing at work and preterm delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 102:198
Hentschel J, Arlettaz R, Bührer C (2001) Überlebenschancen und Langzeitprognose bei Geburt in der Grauzone der Lebensfähigkeit. Gynakologe 34:697–707
Herbst A, Källén K (2006) Influence of mode of delivery on neonatal mortality and morbidity in spontaneous preterm breech delivery. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 133:25–29
Herbst AL, Kurman RJ, Scully RE et al (1972) Vaginal and cervical abnormalities after exposure to stilbestrol in utero. Obstet Gynecol 40:287–298
Hirsch HA (1990) Technique of cesarean section for infants below 1500 g. In: Duc G, Huch A, Huch R (Hrsgs) The very low birth infant. Thieme, Stuttgart, S 230–241
Hodnett ED, Fredericks S (2003) Support during pregnancy for women at increased risk of low birth weight babies. Cochrane Database Syst Rev:CD 000198
Hollier LM (2005) Preventing preterm birth: what works, what doesn’t. Obstet Gynecol Surv 60:124–131
Honest H, Bachmann LM, Gupta JK et al (2002) Accuracy of cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin test in predicting preterm birth: systematic review. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 325:301
Honest H, Bachmann LM, Sundaram R et al (2004) The accuracy of risk scores in predicting preterm birth-a systematic review. J Obstet Gynaecol 24:343
Hoyme UB, Schwalbe N, Saling E (2005) Die Effizienz der Thüringer Frühgeburtenvermeidungsstudie 2000 wird durch die Perinatalstatistik der Jahre 2001–2003 bestätigt. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 65:284–288
Husslein P, Cabero Roura L, Dudenhausen JW et al (2007) Atosiban versus usual care for the management of preterm labor. J Perinat Med 35:305–313
Iams JD, Goldenberg RL, Meis PJ et al (1996) The length of the cervix and the risk of spontaneous premature delivery. National Institut of Child Health and Human Development Maternal Fetal Medicine Unit Network. N Engl J Med 334:567–572
Iams JD, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, Moawad AH et al (2001) Term prediction study: can low-risk women destined for spontaneous preterm birth be identified? Am J Obstet Gynecol 184:652–655
Iams JD, Newman RB, Thorn EA, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units et al (2002) Frequency of uterine contractions and the risk of spontaneous preterm delivery. N Engl J Med 346:250–255
Ikegami M, Polk D, Jobe A (1996) Minimum interval from fetal betamethasone treatment to postnatal lung responses in preterm lambs. Am J Obstet Gynecol 174:1408–1413
Ingemarsson I (2003) Gender aspects of preterm birth. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 110(Suppl 20):34–38
Jobe AH, Soll RF (2004) Choice and dose of corticosteroid for antenatal treatments. Am J Obstet Gynecol 190:878–881
Juhl M, Andersen PK, Olsen J et al (2008) Physical exercise during pregnancy and the risk of preterm pregnancy: a study within the Danish National Birth Cohort. Am J Epidemiol 167:859
Kaufman RH, Binder G, Gray PM et al (1977) Upper genital tract changes associated with exposure in utero to diethylstilbestrol. Am J Obstet Gynecol 128:51–59
Keirse MJNC (1990) Progesteron administration in pregnancy may prevent preterm delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 97:149–154
Keirse MJNC, Kanhai HHH (1981) An obstetrical viewpoint on preterm birth with particular reference to perinatal morbidity and mortality. In: Huisjes HJ (Hrsg) Aspects of perinatal morbidity. Univ Boekhandel, Groningen, S 1–35
Kelly MK, Schneider EP, Petrikovsky BM et al (2000) Effect of antenatal steroid administration on the fetal biophysical profile. J Clin Ultrasound 28:224–226
Kelly S, Pollock M, Maas B et al (2001) Early transvaginal ultrasonography versus early cerclage in women with an unclear history of incompetent cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol 184:1097–1099
Kenyon SL, Taylor DJ, Tarnow-Mordi W, ORACLE Collaborative Study Group (2001a) Broad-spectrum antibiotics for preterm labour: the ORACLE II randomised trial. Lancet 357:989–994
Kenyon SL, Taylor DJ, Tarnow-Mordi W, ORACLE Collaborative Study Group (2001b) Broad-spectrum antibiotics for preterm, prelabour rupture of fetal membranes: the ORACLE I randomised trial. Lancet 357:979–988
Kenyon SL, Pike K, Jones DR, Broklehurst P, Marlow N, Salt A, Taylor DJ (2008a) Childhood outcomes after prescription of antibiotics to pregnant women with spontaneous preterm labour: 7 year follow-up of the ORACLE II trial. Lancet 372:1319–1327
Kenyon SL, Pike K, Jones DR, Broklehurst P, Marlow N, Salt A, Taylor DJ (2008b) Childhood outcomes after prescription of antibiotics to pregnant women preterm rupture of the membranes: 7 year follow-up of the ORACLE I trial. Lancet 372:1310–1318
Kiely JL (1998) What is the population-based risk of preterm birth among twins and other multiples? Clin Obstet Gynecol 41:3
King JF, Flenady V (2002) Prophylactic antibiotics for inhibiting preterm labour with intact membranes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev:CD000246
King JF, Flenady VJ, Paptsonis DN et al (2003) Calcium channel bockers für inhibiting preterm labor. Cochrane Database Syst Rev:CD002255
King JF, Flenady V, Cole, S et al (2005) Cyclo-oxygenase (COX) inhibitors for treating preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev:CD001992
Kiss H, Petricevic L, Husslein P (2004) Prospective randomised controlled trial of an infection screening programme to reduce the rate of preterm delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 329(7462):371
Klatsky PC, Tran ND, Caughey AB et al (2008) Fibroids and reproductive outcomes: a systematic literature review from conception to delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 198(4):357
Klebanoff MA, Regan JA, Rao AB et al (1995) Outcome of the Vaginal Infections and Prematurity study: results of a clinical trial of erythromycin among pregnant women colonized with group B streptococci. Am J Obstet Gynecol 172:1540–1545
Klebanoff MA, Carey JC, Hauth JC et al (2001) Failure of metranidazole to prevent preterm delivery among pregnant women with asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection. N Engl J Med 345:487–493
Klimont J (2012) Frühgeburten in Österreich – Zeitliche Trends und Risikofaktoren auf Basis revidierter Ergebnisse. Statistische Nachrichten 9/2012
Kollée LA, Cuttini M, Delmas D et al (2009) Obstetric interventions for babies born before 28 weeks of gestation in Europe: results of the MOSAIC study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 16:1481–1491
Kornman KS, di Giovine FS (1998) Genetic variations in cytokine expression: a risk factor for severity of adult periodontitis. Ann Periodontol 3:327
Koumans EH, Markowitz LE, Hogan V (2002) Indications for therapy and treatment recommendations for bacterial vaginosis in nonpregnant and pregnant women: a synthesis of data. Clin Infect Dis 35:S152–S172
Kramer MS, Kamuka R (2003) Energy and protein intake in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev:CD00032
Kyrgiou M, Koliopoulos G, Martin-Hirsch P (2006) Obstetric outcome after conservative treatment for intraepithelial or early invasive cervical lesions: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 367:489–498
Kyrklund-Blomberg NB, Cnattingius S (1998) Preterm birth and maternal smoking: risks related to gestational age and onset of delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 179:1051–1055
Lamont RF (2000) The pathophysiology of pulmonary oedema with the use of beta-agonists. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 107:439–444
Lamont RF, Duncan SL, Mandal D et al (2003) Intravaginal clindamycin to reduce preterm birth in women with abnormal genital tract flora. Obstet Gynecol 101:516–522
Larsson LG, Baum J, Mudholkar GS et al (1993) Hypermobility: prevalence and features in a Swedish population. Br J Rheumatol 32(2):116
Laughlin SK, Baird DD, Savitz DA et al (2009) Prevalence of uterine leiomyomas in the first trimester of pregnancy: an ultrasound-screening study. Obstet Gynecol 113(3):630
Lee HC, Gould JB (2006) Survival advantages associated with caesarean delivery of very low birth weight vertex neonates. Obstet Gynecol 107:97–105
Lee BH, Stoll BJ, McDonalds SA, Higgins RD et al (2006) Adverse neonatal outcomes associated with antenatal dexmethasone versus antenatal betamethasone. Pediatrics 117:1503
Lee BH, Stoll BJ et al (2008) Neurodevelopmental outcomes of extremely low birthweight infants exposed prenatally to dexmethasone versus betamethasone. Pediatrics 121:289
Leitich H, Kaider A (2003) Fetal Fibronektin-how useful is it in the prediction of preterm birth. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 110(Suppl 20):66–70
Leitich H, Brunbauer M, Kaider A et al (1999) Cervical length and dilatation of the internal os detected by vaginal ultrasonography as markers forpreterm delivery: a systemic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 181:1465–1472
Leitich H, Brunbauer M, Bodner-Adler B et al (2003) Antibiotic treatment of bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy: a metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188:752–758
Lemancewicz A, Laudanska H, Laudanski L et al (2000) Permeability of fetal membranes to calcium and magnesium: possible role in preterm labour. Hum Reprod 15:2018–2022
Leppert PC (1995) Anatomy and physiology of cervical ripening. Clin Obstet Gynecol 38(2):267–279
Leviton A, Pagano M, Kuban KCK (1988) Etiologic heterogeneity of intracranial hemorrhages in preterm newborns. Paediatr Neurol 4:274–278
Lewis DF, Futayyeh S, Towers CV, Asrat T, Edwards S, Brooks GG (1996) Preterm delivery from 34 to 37 weeks of gestation: is respiratory distress syndrome a problem? Am J Obstet Gynecol 174:525–528
Liggins GC, Howie RN (1972) A controlled trial of ante, partum glucocorticoid treatment for prevention of the respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. Pediatrics 50:515–525
Likis FE, Edwards DR, Andrews JC et al (2012) Progestogens for preterm birth prevention: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 120(4):897–907
Linder N, Haskin O, Levit O et al (2003) Risk factors for intraventrikular hemorrhage in very low birth weight premature infants: a retrospective case-control study. Pediatrics 111:590–595
Lipsitz PJ (1971) The clinical and biochemical effects of excess magnesium in the newborn. Pediatrics 47:501–509
Lockwood CJ (1999) Stress associated preterm delivery: the role of corticotropin-releasing hormone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 180:264–266
Lockwood CJ, Senyei AE, Dische R et al (1991) Fetal febronectin and vaginal secretions as a predictor of preterm delivery. N Engl J Med 325:669–674
Loe SM, Sanchez-Ramos L, Kaunitz AM (2005) Assessing the neonatal safety of indometacin tocolysis: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 106:173–179
Lorenz U, Ragosch V, Weitzel H (1990) Diagnostik der fetalen Lungenreife. Gynakologe 23:284–288
Lu MC, Chen B (2004) Racial and ethnic disparities in preterm birth: the role of stressful life events. Am J Obstet Gynecol 191:691
Lucey J, Soll R, Horbar J (1991) Vermont-Oxford trial network. Burlington
Lucey JF, Rowan CA, Shiono P et al (2004) Fetal infants: the fate of 4172 infants with birth weights of 401–500 grams – the Vermont Oxford network experience (1996–2000). Pediatrics 113:1559–1566
Ludmir J, Landon MB, Gabbe SG et al (1987) Management of the diethylstilbestrol-exposed pregnant patient: a prospective study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 157:665–669
Lyell DJ, Pullen K, Campbell L et al (2007) Magnesium sulfate compared with nifedipine for acute tocolysis of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 110:61–67
MacKey MC, Williams CA, Tiller CM (2000) Stress, preterm labour and birth outcomes. J Adv Nurs 32:666–674
Mackler AM, Iezza G, Akin MR et al (1999) Macrophage trafficking in the uterus and cervix precedes parturition in the mouse. Biol Reprod 61(4):879–883
Macones GA, Parry S, Elkousy M, Clothier B, Ural SH, Strauss JF (2004) A polymorphism in the promoter region of TNF and bacterial vaginosis: preliminary evidence for gene-environment interaction in the etiology of preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 190:1504–1508
Magann EF, Evans SF, Newnham JP et al (1996) Employment exertion and pregnancy outcome: assessment by kilocalories expended each day. Am J Obstet Gynecol 175:182
Mahendroo MS, Porter A, Russell DW et al (1999) The parturition defect in steroid 5alpha-reductase type 1 knockout mice is due to impaired cervical ripening. Mol Endocrinol 13(6):981–992
Makrides M, Duley L, Olsen SF (2006) Marine oil, and other prostaglandin precursor, supplementation for pregnancy uncomplicated by pre-eclampsia or intrauterine growth restriction. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3)
Many A, Lazebnik N, Hill LM (1996) The underlying cause of polyhydramnios determines prematurity. Prenat Diagn 16:55–57
March of Dimes www.marchofdimes.com/peristats/. Zugegriffen im 2015
Mari G, Kirshon B, Moise KJ, Lee W, Cotten DB (1989) Doppler assessment of the fetal and uteroplacental circulation during Nifedipine therapy for preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 161:1514–1518
Martin DH, Eschenbach DA, Cotch FA et al (1997) Double blind placebo controlled treatment trial of Chlamydia trachomatis endocervical infections in pregnant women. Inf Dis Obstet Gynecol 5:10
McEvoy C, Schilling D, Peters D et al (2010) Respiratory compliance in preterm infants after a single rescue course of antenatal steroids: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 202(6):544.e1
McPheeters ML, Miller WC, Hartmann KE et al (2005) The epidemiology of threatened preterm labor: a prospective cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 192:1325
McWhorter J, Carlan SJ, OLeary TD et al (2004) Rofecoxib versus magnesium sulphate to arrest preterm labor: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 103:923–930
Meis JP, Klebanoff M, Thom E et al (2003) Prevention of recurrent preterm delivery by 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate. N Engl J Med 348:2379–2385
Mercer BM, Goldenberg RL, Das A et al (1996) The preterm prediction study: a clinical risk assessment system. Am J Obstet Gynecol 174:1885–1893
Mercer BM, Goldenberg RL, Moawad AH et al (1999) The preterm prediction study: effect of gestational age and cause of preterm birth on subsequent obstetric outcome. National Institue of child health and human development maternal-fetal medicine units network. Am J Obstet Gynecol 181:1216–1221
Michalowicz B, Hodges JS, DiAngelis AJ et al (2006) Treatment of periodontal disease and the risk of preterm birth. N Engl J Med 355:1885–1894
Millar LK, DeBuque L, Wing DA (2003) Uterine contraction frequency during treatment of pyelonephritis in pregnancy and subsequent risk of preterm birth. J Perinat Med 31:41–46
Moawad AH, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM et al (2002) The preterm prediction study: the value of serum alkaline phosphatase, alpha-fetoprotein, plasma corticotrophin- releasing hormone, and other serum markers for the prediction of spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 186:990–996
Moise KJ, Huta JC, Sharif DS et al (1988) Indomethacin in the treatment of premature labor: effects on the fetal ductus arteriosus. N Engl J Med 319:327–331
Moutquin JM, Sherman D, Cohen H et al (2000) Double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of atosiban and ritodrin in the treatment of preterm labour: a multicenter effectiveness and safety trial study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 182:1191–1199
Mozurkewich E, Luke B, Avni M, Wolf FM (2000) Working conditions and adverse pregnancy outcome: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 95:623
MRC/RCOG Working Party on Cervical Cerclage (1993) Final report of the Medical Research Council/Royal College of Obstetricians and gynaecologists multicentre randomised trial of cervical cerclage. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 100(6):516
Muglia LJ, Katz M (2010) The enigma of spontaneous preterm birth. N Engl J Med 362:529–535
Mulder EJ, Derks JB, Visser GH (1997) Antenatal corticosteroid therapy and fetal behaviour: a randomized study of the effects of betamethasone and dexamethasone. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 104:1239–1247
Murphy KE, Hannah ME, Willan AR et al (2008) Multiple courses of antenatal corticosteroids for preterm birth (MACS): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 372(9656):2143–2151
Naik Gaunekar N, Raman P, Bain E et al (2013) Maintenance therapy with calcium channel blockers for preventing preterm birth after threatened preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 10:CD004071
Nassar AH, Hobeika EM, Usta IM (2005) The impact of vaginal delivery in premature infants weighing less than1251 grams. Letter to the editor. Obstet Gynecol 106:641
Newman RB, Goldenberg RL, Moawad AH et al (2001) Occupational fatigue and preterm premature rupture of membranes. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Units Network. Am J Obstet Gynecol 184:438
Newman RB, Goldenberg RL, Iams JD et al (2008) Preterm prediction study: comparison of the cervical score and bishop score for prediction of spontaneous preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol 112:508
Ney JA, Dooley SL, Keith LG et al (1990) The prevalence of substance abuse in patients with suspected preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 162:1562–1565
NIH (1994) NIH consensus development conference on the effect of corticosteroids for fetal maturation on perinatal outcomes. US Department on Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, NIH Publ No 95–3784, Nov 1994
NIH (2000) Antenatal corticosteroids: repeat courses. NIH Consensus Statement. 17–18 Aug 2000
Norwitz ER, Robinson JN, Challis JRG (1999) The control of labor. N Engl J Med 341:660–666
Obladen M (2007) Mindestmengen in der Versorgung sehr untergewichtiger Frühgeborener: Eine Literatur- übersicht. Z Geburtshilfe Neonatol 211:110–117
Ogunyemi D (2007) Risk factors for acute pulmonary oedema inpreterm delivery. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 133:143
Ohlsen SF, Secher NJ (2002) Low consumption of seafood in early pregnancy as a risk factor for preterm delivery: prospective cohort study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 324:447
Ohlsen SF, Secher NJ, Tabor A et al (2000) Randomised clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies. FOTIP team. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 107:382
Oner C, Schatz F, Kizilay G et al (2008) Progestin-inflammatory cytokine interactions affect matrix metalloproteinase-1 and -3 expression in term decidual cells: implications for treatment of chorioamnionitis-induced preterm delivery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(1):252
Onwude JL, Lilford RJ, Hjartardottir et al (1995) A randomised doubl-blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 102:95–100
Orr ST (2004) Social support and pregnancy outcome: a review of the literature. Clin Obstet Gynecol 47:842
Owen J, Yost N, Berghella V et al (2001) Mid trimester endovaginal cervical sonography in women at high risk for spontaneous preterm birth. JAMA 286:1340–1348
Owen J, Iams JD, Hauth JC (2003) Vaginal sonography and cervical incompetence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188:586–596
Palta M, Sadek M, Lim TS et al (1998) Association of tocolytic therapy with antenatal steroid administration and infant outcomes. Newborn lung project. Am J Perinatol 15:87–92
Papatsonis DN, van Kok JH, Geijn HP et al (2000) Neonatal effects ofnifedipine and ritodrine for preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 95:477–481
Papiernik E (1993) Prevention of preterm labour and delivery. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynecol 7:499–521
Paquette DW (2002) The periodontal infection-systemic disease link: a review of the truth or myth. J Int Acad Periodontol 4:101–109
Paul DA, Sciscione A, Leef KH et al (2002) Caesarean delivery and outcome in very low birth weight infants. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 42:41–45
Pelham JJ, Lewis D, Berghella V (2008) Prior cerclage: to repeat or not to repeat? That is the question. Am J Perinatol 25:417–420
Peltoniemi OM, Kari MA, Tammela O et al (2007) Randomized trial of a single repeat dose of prenatal betamethasone treatment in imminent preterm birth. Pediatrics 119(2):290
Perlman JM, Rollins N, Burns D, Risser R (1993) Relationship between periventricular intraparenchymal echodensities and germinal matrix-intraventricular hemorrhage and the very low birth weight neonate. Pediatrics 91:474–480
Petraglia F, Hatch MC, Lapinski R et al (2001) Lack of effect of psychosocial effect on maternal corticotropin- releasing factor and catecholamin levels at 28 weeks’ gestation. J Soc Gynecol Invest 8:23
Porto AM, Coutinho IC, Correia JB et al (2011) Effectiveness of antenatal corticosteroids in reducing respiratory disorders in late preterm infants: randomised clinical trial. BMJ 342:d1696
Propst AM, Hill JA 3rd (2000) Anatomic factors assciated with recurrent pregnancy loss. Semin Reprod Med 18:341–350
Pugash D, Krssak M, Kulemann V et al (2009) Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the fetal brain. Prenat Diagn 29:434–441
Purisch SE, DeFranco EA, Muglia LJ et al (2008) Preterm birth in pregnancies complicated by major congenital malformations: a population-based study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 199:287
Raga F, Bauset C, Remohi J et al (1997) Reproductive impact of congenital mullerian anomalies. Hum Reprod 12:2277–2281
Ragosch V (1997) Fetale Lungenreife: Klinische Untersuchungen zu diagnostischen Methoden und tierexperimentelle Untersuchungen zur pharmakologischen Beeinflussung. Habilitationsschrift
Ragosch V, Weitzel H (1995) Derzeitiger Stand der Lungenreifeinduktion zur Vermeidung eines neonatalen Atemnotsyndroms. Gynakologe 28:203–210
Raio L, Ghezzi F, DiNaro E, Gomez R, Lüscher KP (1997) Duration of pregnancy after carbon dioxid laser conisation of the cervix: influence of cone height. Obstet Gynecol 90:978–982
Rayco-Solon P, Fulford AJ, Prentice AM (2005) Maternal preconceptional weight and gestational length. Am J Obstet Gynecol 192:1133–1136
Raynes-Greenow C, Roberts C, Bell J et al (2004) Antibiotics for ureaplasma in the vagina in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1:CD003767
Reichmann JP (2008) Home uterine actvity monitoring: the role of medical evidence. Obstet Gynecol 112:325
Respondek M, Weil SR, Huhta JC (1995) Fetal echocardiography during indomethacin treatment. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 5:86–89
Reuss ML, Gordon HR (1995) Obstetrical judgements of viability, and perinatal survival of extremely low-birth-weight infants. Am J Publ Health 85:362
Roberts D, Dalziel S (2006) Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3:CD004454
Roberts WE, Perry KG, Neff RW III, Washburne JF, Morrison JC (1995) The irritable uterus: a risk factor for preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 172:138–142
Rode L, Langhoff-Roos J, Andersson C (2009) Systematic review of progesterone for the prevention of preterm birth in singleton pregnancies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 88(11):1180
Rodts-Palenik S, Morrison JC (2000) Tocolysis: an update for the practitioner. Obstet Gynecol Surv 57:9–34
Romero R, Sibai BM, Sanchez-Ramos et al (2000) An oxytocin receptor antagonist (atosiban) in the treatment of preterm labor: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with tocolytic rescue. Am J Obstet Gynecol 182:1173–1183
Romero R, Nicolaides K, Conde-Agudelo A et al (2012) Vaginal progesterone in women with an asymptomatic sonographic short cervix in the midtrimester decreases preterm delivery and neonatal morbidity: a systematic review and metaanalysis of individual patient data. Am J Obstet Gynecol 206(2):124.e1
Roseboom T, de Rooij S, Painter R (2006) The Dutch famine and its long-term consequences for adult health. Early Hum Dev 82(8):485–491
Rotmensch S, Liberati M, Celentano C et al (1999) The effect of betamethasone on fetal biophysical avtivities and Doppler veocimetry of umbilical and middle cerebral artery. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 78:768–773
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2002) Tokolytic drugs for women in preterm labour. Clinical Guidelines No 1 (B) Oct 2002
Rust OA, Atlas RO, Reed J et al (2001) Revisiting the short cervix detected by transvaginal ultrasound in the second trimester: why cerclage therapy may not help. Am J Obstet Gynecol 185:1098–1105
Rust OQ, Atlas RO, Kimmel S et al (2005) Does the presence of a funnel increase the risk of adverse perinatal outcome in a patient with a short cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol 192:1060–1066
Saigal S, Doyle LW (2008) An overview of mortality and sequelae of preterm birth from infancy to adulthood. Lancet 371:261–269
Sakai M, Shiozaki A, Tabata M et al (2006) Evaluation of effectiveness of prophylactic cerclage of a short cervix according to interleukin–8 in cervical mucus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 194:14–19
Sakamoto Y, Moran P, Bulmer JN et al (2005) Macrophages and not granulocytes are involved in cervical ripening. J Reprod Immunol 66(2):161–173
Saling E (1981) Der frühe totale Muttermundverschluss zur Vermeidung habitueller Aborte und Frühgeburten. Z Geburtshilfe Perinatol 185:259–261
Saling E, Schreiber M (2005) Laktobazillen-Schutzsystem bei Schwangeren – effiziente Vermeidung von Frühgeburten durch Früherkennung von Störungen. Z Geburtshilfe Neonatol 209:128–134
Saurel-Cubizolles MJ, Zeitlin J, Lelong N (2004) Employment, working conditions and preterm birth: results from the Europop case-control survey. J Epidemiol Community Health 58:395
Schäffer L, Luzi F, Burkhardt T et al (2009) Antenatal betamethasone administration alters stress physiology in healthy neonates. Obstet Gynecol 113(5):1082
Scheerer LJ, Lam F, Bartolucci L et al (1989) A new technique for reduction of prolabs fetal membrane for emergency cervical cerclage. Obstet Gynecol 74:408–410
Schmidt S (2009) Frühgeburt an der Grenze der Lebensfähigkeit des Kindes – ein geburtshilflicher Kommentar zu der AWMF-Leitlinie (024–019). Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 69:391–394
Schneider H (2000) Prospektive Geburtsleitung bei kleinen Frühgeborenen. In: Friese K, Plath C, Friese V (Hrsgs) Frühgeburt und Frühgeborenes. Springer, Berlin
Schneider H (2003) Geburtshilfliche Überlegungen im Grenzbereich der Lebensfähigkeit sehr früher Frühgeburten. Praxis 92:585–589
Schneider H, Naiem A, Maick A, Hängg W (1994) Ätiologische Klassifikation der Frühgeburt und ihre Bedeutung für die Prävention. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 54:12–19
Senat MV, Ancel PY, Bouvier-Colle MH et al (1998) How does multiple pregnancy affect maternal mortality and morbidity? Clin Obstet Gynecol 41:78
Serenius F, Ewald U, Farooqui A et al (2004) Short-term outcome after active perinatal management at 23–25 weeks gestation. A study from two Swedish tertiaty care centers. Part 2: infant survival. Acta Paediatr 93:1027–1028
Shakaran S, Fanaroff AA, Wright l et al (2002) Risk factors for early death among extremely low-birth-weight infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 186:796–802
Shiono PH, Klebanoff MA, Rhoads GG (1986) Smoking and drinking during pregnancy: their effects on preterm birth. JAMA 255:82–84
Simchen MJ, Alkazaleh F, Adamson SL et al (2004) The fetal cardiovascularresponse to to antenatal steroids in severe early-onset intrauterine gro.wth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 190:296
Simcox R, Sin WT, Seed PT et al (2007) Prophylactic antibiotics for the prevention of preterm birth in women at risk: a meta-analysis. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 47:368
Simhan HN, Caritis SN (2007) Prevention of preterm delivery. N Engl J Med 357:477
Simhan HN, Caritis SN, Krohn MA et al (2003) Elevated vaginal pH and neutrophils are associated strongly with early spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189:1150–1154
Simhan HN, Caritis SN, Krohn MA et al (2005) The vaginal inflammatory milieu and the risk of early premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 192:213–218
Smaill F, Vazquez JC (2007) Antibiotics for asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2):CD000490
Smith GN, Walker MC, McGrath MJ (1999) Randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled pilot study assessing nitroglycerin as a tocolytic. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 106:736–739
Smith GN, Walker MC, Ohlsson A et al (2007) Randomised, double-blind, placebo controlled trial of transdermal nitrglycerin for preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 196:37
Smuts CM (2003) A randomised trial of decosahexaenoic acid supplementation in the third trimester of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 101:469–479
Sosa C, Althabe F, Belizan J et al (2004) Bed rest in singleton pregnancies for preventing preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev:CD003581
Sotiriadis A, Papatheodorou S, Makrydimas G (2012) Perinatal outcome in women treated with progesterone for the prevention of preterm birth: a meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 40(3):257
Spätling L, Spätling C (1988) Magnesium supplementation during pregnancy. A double blind study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 95:120–125
Spätling L, Fallenstein F, Schneider H, Dancis J (1989) Bolus tocolysis: treatment of preterm labor with pulsatile administration of beta-adrenergic agonists. Am J Obstet Gynecol 160:713–717
Spinillo A, Viazzo F, Colleoni R et al (2004) Two-year infant neurodevelopmental outcome after single or multiple antenatal courses of corticosteroids to prevent complications of prematurity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 191:217
Stoelhorst GM, Rijken M, Martens SE et al (2005) Changes in neonatology: comparison of two cohorts of very preterm infants (gestational age <32 weeks): the project on preterm and small for gestational age infants 1983 and the Leiden follow-up project on prematurity 1996–1997. Pediatrics 115:396–405
Straube S, Voigt M, Scholz R, Peters F, Hallier E, Briese V, Jorch G (2009) 18. Mitteilung: Frühgeborenenraten und mütterlicher Beruf – Alter und Anzahl der Lebendgeburten als Confounder. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 69:698–702
Strebel R, Bucher HU (1994) Bessere Überlebenschance für extrem kleine Frühgeburten in der Schweiz. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 124:1653–1659
Stutchfield P, Whitacker R, Russel I (2005) Antenatal betamethasone and incidence of neonatal respiratory distress after elective caesarean section: pragmatic randomized trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 331:662
Suarez VR, Thompson LL, Jain V et al (2002) The effect of in utero exposure to indomethacin on the need for surgical closure of a patent ductus arteriosus in the neonate. Am J Obstet Gynecol 187:886–888
Subtil D, Tiberghien P, Devos P et al (2003) Immediate and delayed effects of antenatal steroids on fetal heart rate: a randomized trial that compares betamethasone acetate and phosphate, betamethasone phosphate, and dexamethasone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 188:524–531
Thinkhamrop J, Hofmeyr GJ, Adetoro et al (2002) Prophylactic anibiotic administration in pregnancy to prevent infectious morbidity and mortality. Cochrane Database Syst Rev:CD002250
Thornton JG (2006) The quality of randomized trials of tocolysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 113(Suppl 3):93–95
To MS, Alfirevic Z, Heath VC et al (2004) Cervical cerclage for prevention of preterm delivery in women with short cervix: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 363:1849–1853
Tommiska V, Heinonen K, Ikonen S et al (2001) A national short-term follow-up study of extremely low birth weight infants born in Finland in 1996–1997. Pediatrics 107:E2
Tornblom SA, Patel FA, Bystrom B et al (2004) 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase and cyclooxygenase 2 messenger ribonucleic acid expression and immunohistochemical localization in human cervical tissue during term and preterm labor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(6):2909–2915
Tracey M, Fletcher HS (2000) Appendicitis in pregnancy. Am Surg 66:555–559
Tsatsaris V, Papatsonis D, Goffinet F, Dekker G, Carvonne B (2001) Tokolysis with nifedipine or betaadrenergic agonists: a metaanalysis. Obstet Gynecol 97:840–847
Tsoi E, Fuchs IB, Rane S et al (2005) Sonographic measurement of cervical length in threatened preterm labor in singleton pregnancies with intact membranes. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 25:353
Tsoi E, Akmal S, Geerts L, Jeffery B, Nicolaides KH (2006) Sonographic measurement of cervical length and fetal fibronectin testing in threatened preterm labor. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 27:368–372
Ugwumadu A, Manyonda I, Reid F et al (2003) Effect of early oral clindamycin on late miscarriage and preterm delivery in asymptomatic women with abnormal vaginal flora and bacterial vaginosis: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 361:983–988
Urquhart C, Currell R, Harlow F et al (2012) Home uterine monitoring for detecting preterm labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 5:CD006172
Valenzuela GJ, Craig J, Bernhardt MD et al (1995) Placental passage of the oxytocin antagonist atosiban. Am J Obstet Gynecol 172:1304–1306
Vanhaesebrouck P, Allegaert K, Bottu J et al (2004) The EPIBEL study: outcomes to discharge from hospital for extremely preterm infants in Belgium. Pediatrics 114:663–675
Vermillion ST, Scardo JA, Lashus AG, Wiles HB (1997) The effect of indomethacin tocolysis on fetal ductius arteriosus constriction with advancing gestational age. Am J Obstet Gynecol 177:256
Vetter K (2001) Zervixinsuffizienz: operative Möglichkeiten. Gynakologe 34:726–731
Waffarn F, Davis EP (2012) Effects of antenatal corticosteroids on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis of the fetus and newborn: experimental findings and clinical considerations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 207(6):446
Wapner RJ, Sorokin Y, Thorn EA et al (2006) Single versus weekly courses of antenatal corticosteroids: evaluation of safety and efficacy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 196:633
Wapner RJ, Sorokin Y, Mele L et al (2007) Long-term outcomes after repeat doses of antenatal corticosteroids. N Engl J Med 357:1190
Warren JE, Silver RM, Dalton J et al (2007) Collagen 1Alpha1 and transforming growth factor-beta polymorphisms in women with cervical insufficiency. Obstet Gynecol 110(3):619
Weintraub Z, Solovechik M, Reichman B et al (2001) Effect of maternal tocolysis on the incidence of severe periventricular/intraventricular haemorrhage in very low birth weight infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 85:F13
Weiss G, Goldsmith LT (2005) Mechanisms of relaxin-mediated premature birth. Ann NY Acad Sci 1041:345–350
Wex J, Conolly M, Rath W (2009) Atosiban versus betamimetics in the trearment of preterm labour in Germany: an economic evaluation. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 9:23
Whitelaw A, Thoresen M (2000) Antenatal steroids and the developing brain. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 83:F154
Whitworth M, Quenby S, Cockerill RO et al (2011) Specialised antenatal clinics for women with a pregnancy at high risk of preterm birth (excluding multiple pregnancy) to improve maternal and infant outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 9:CD006760
Wijnberger LD, Bilardo CM, Hecher K et al (2004) Effect of antenatal glucocorticoid therapy on arterial and venous blood flow velocity wave forms in severely growth-restricted fetuses. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 23:584–589
Wildschut HI, Nas T, Golding J (1997) Are sociodemographic factors predictive of preterm birth? A reappraisal of the 1958 British perinatal mortality survey. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 104:57
Winkler M, Rath W (1999) Changes in the cervical extracellular matrix during pregnancy and parturition. J Perinat Med 27(1):45–60
Wood NS, Marlow N, Costeloe K, Gibson AT, Wilkinson AR (2000) Neurologic and developmental disability after extremely preterm birth. N Engl J Med 343:378–384
Word RA, Li XH, Hnat M, Carrick K (2007) Dynamics of cervical remodeling during pregnancy and parturition: mechanisms and current concepts. Semin Reprod Med 25(1):69–79
Worldwide Atosiban versus Beta-agonists Study Group (2001) Effectiveness and safety of the oxytocin antagonist atosiban versus beta-adrenergic agonists in the treatment of preterm labour. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 108:133–142
Yallampalli C, Dong YL, Gangula PR et al (1998) Role and regulation of nitric oxide in the uterus during pregnancy and parturition. J Soc Gynecol Invest 5:58–67
Yeast JD, Halberstadt C, Meyer BA et al (1993) The risk of pumonary edeme and colloid osmotic pressure changes during mahnesium sulfate infusion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 169:1566–1571
Yost NP, Bloom SL, McIntire DD et al (2005) Hospitalisation for women with arrested preterm labor: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 106:14–18
Zahn V (1978) Physiologie der Uleruskontraktionen. Z Geburtshilfe Perinatol 182:263–268
Zeitlin J, Ancel PY, Larroque B et al (2004) Fetal sex and indicated very preterm birth: results of the EPIPAGE study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 190:1322–1325
Zeitlin J, Szamotulska K, Drewniak N et al (2013) Preterm birth time trends in Europe: a study of 19 countries. BJOG 120:1356–1365
Zlatnik FJ, Burmeister LF, Feddersen DA et al (1989) Radiological appearance of the upper cervical canal in women with a history of premature delivery. II. Relationship to clinical presentation and to tests of cervical compliance. J Reprod Med 34:525–530
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this entry
Cite this entry
Helmer, H., Schneider, H. (2014). Frühgeburt: Pränatale und intrapartale Aspekte. In: Schneider, H., Husslein, PW., Schneider, K . (eds) Die Geburtshilfe. Springer Reference Medizin. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44369-9_15-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44369-9_15-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-44369-9
eBook Packages: Springer Referenz Medizin
Publish with us
Chapter history
-
Latest
Die Frühgeburt: Prädiktion, Prävention und Management- Published:
- 03 August 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44369-9_15-2
-
Original
Frühgeburt: Pränatale und intrapartale Aspekte- Published:
- 16 March 2015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44369-9_15-1