Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Mediating Role of Anticipated Guilt in Consumers’ Ethical Decision-Making

  • OriginalPaper
  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Sarah Steenhaut is research assistant and doctoral candidate at Ghent University, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Research Center for Consumer Psychology and Marketing (Belgium). Her research interests lie in the area of ethical aspects and marketing, more specifically, consumers’ ethical beliefs, attitudes and behavior. She has recently published in Journal of Business Ethics.

Patrick Van Kenhove is Professor of Marketing at Ghent University, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Department of Marketing (Belgium). He has recently published in Journal of Business Ethics, Psychology & Marketing, Journal of Retailing, Advances in Consumer Research, Journal of Economic Psychology, Journal of Health Communication and The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research.

ABSTRACT

In this paper, we theorize that the anticipation of guilt plays an important role in ethically questionable consumer situations. We propose an ethical decision-making framework incorporating anticipated guilt as partial mediator between consumers’ ethical beliefs (anteceded by ethical ideology) and intentions. In the first study, we compared several models using structural equation modeling and found empirical support for our research model. A second experiment was set up to illustrate how these new insights may be applied to prevent consumers from taking advantage of the seller. Results showed that enhancing the anticipation of guilt (by making the interpersonal consequences of the unethical act more salient) increased consumers’ ethical intentions, controlling for ethical beliefs. Together these two studies might have important theoretical and managerial contributions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ajzen I. (1991). The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50:619–630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ajzen I., Fishbein M. (2000). Attitudes and the Attitude-Behavior Relation: Reasoned and Automatic Processes. In: Stroebe W., Hewstone M. (eds). European Review of Social Psychology. London, Wiley and Sons

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Khatib J. A., Robertson C. J., Lascu D.-N. (2004). Post-Communist Consumer Ethics: The Case of Romania. Journal of Business Ethics 54:81–95

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Khatib J. A., Stanton A. D. A., Rawwas M. Y. A. (2005). Ethical Segmentation of Consumers in Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis. International Marketing Review 22(2):225–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ang S. H., Cheng P. S., Lim E. A. C., Tambyah S. K. (2001). Spot the Difference: Consumer Responses towards Counterfeits. Journal of Consumer Marketing 23(4):272–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi R. P. (1980). Causal Models in Marketing. J. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi R. P., Yi Y. (1988). On the Evaluation of Structural Equation Models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16:74–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi R. P., Baumgartner H., Pieters R., Zeelenberg M.(2000). The Role of Emotions in Goal-Directed Behavior. In Ratneshwar S., Mick D.G., Huffman C. (eds). The Why of Consumption. Routledge, London, pp. 36–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi R. P., Dholakia U. M., Basuroy S. (2003). How effortful decisions get enacted: The motivating role of decision processes, desires, and anticipated emotions. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 16(4):273–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi R. P., Gopinath M., Nyer P. U.(1999). The Role of Emotions in Marketing. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 27(2):184–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnett T., Bass K., Brown G. (1996). Religiosity, Ethical Ideology, and Intentions to Report a Peer’s Wrongdoing. Journal of Business Ethics 15:1161–1174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron J. (1992). The Effect of Normative Beliefs on Anticipated Emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63(2):320–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron R. M., Kenny D. A. (1983). The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51:1173–1183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister R. F., Reis H. T., Delespaul P. A. E. G. (1995a). Subjective and Experiential Correlates of Guilt in Daily Life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21(12):1256–1268

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister R. F., Stillwell A. M., Heatherton T. F.(1994). Guilt: An Interpersonal Approach. Psychological Bulletin 115(2):243–267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister R.F., Stillwell A.M., Heatherton T.F. (1995b). Personal Narratives about Guilt: Role in Action Control and Interpersonal Relationships. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 17(1–2):173–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berndsen M., van der Pligt J., Doosje B., Manstead A. S. R. (2004). Guilt and Regret: The Determining Role of Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Harm. Cognition and Emotion 18(1):55–70

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bougie R., Pieters R., Zeelenberg M. (2003). Angry Customers Don’t Come Back, they Get Back: The Experience and Behavioral Implications of Anger and Dissatisfaction in Services. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 31(4):377–393

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bozinoff L., Ghingold M. (1983). Evaluating Guilt Arousing Marketing Communications. Journal of Business Research 11:243–255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiou J.-S., Huang C.-Y., Lee H.-H. (2005). The Antecedents of Music Piracy Attitudes and Intentions. Journal of Business Ethics 57:151–174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christie R., Geis F. L. (1970). Studies in Machiavellianism. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Connelly S., Helton-Fauth W., Mumford M. D. (2004). A Managerial In-Basket Study of the Impact of Trait Emotions on Ethical Choice. Journal of Business Ethics 51:245–267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cotte J., Coulter R. A., Moore M. (2005). Enhancing and Disrupting Guilt: The Role of Ad Credibility and Perceived Manipulative Intent. Journal of Business Research 58:361–368

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coulter R. H., Pinto M. B. (1995). Guilt Appeals in Advertising: What are their Effects?. Journal of Applied Psychology 80:697–705

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl D. W., Honea H., Manchanda R. V. (2003). The Nature of Self-Reported Guilt in Consumption Contexts. Marketing Letters 14(3):159–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl D. W., Honea H., Manchanda R. V. (2005). Three Rs of Interpersonal Consumer Guilt: Relationship, Reciprocity, Reparation. Journal of Consumer Psychology 13(4):307–315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis M. A., Andersen M. G., Curtis M. B. (2001). Measuring Ethical Ideology in Business Ethics: A Critical Analysis of the Ethics Position Questionnaire. Journal of Business Ethics 32(1):35–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derbaix C. M., Vanhamme J. (2003). Inducing Word-of-Mouth by eliciting surprise – a Pilot Investigation. Journal of Economic Psychology 24:99–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeRivera J. (1984). The Structure of Emotional Relationships. In: Shaver P. (eds). Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 5th vol. Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, pp. 116–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Edson Escalas J., Stern B. (2003). Sympathy and Empathy: Emotional Responses to Advertising Dramas. Journal of Consumer Research 29(4):566–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg N. (2000). Emotion, Regulation, and Moral,Development. Annual Review of Psychology 51:665–697

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engel J. F., Blackwell R. D. and Kollat D. T.(1978). Consumer Behavior. Dryden, Hinsdale

    Google Scholar 

  • Erffmeyer R., Keillor B., LeClair D. T. (1999). An Empirical Investigation of Japanese Consumer Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics 18(1):35–50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fishbein M., Ajzen I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behaviour: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Addison-Wesley, Mass

    Google Scholar 

  • Forsyth D. R. (1980). A Taxonomy of Ethical Ideologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39:175–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forsyth D. R. (1992). Judging the Morality of Business Practices – The Influence of Personal Moral Philosophies. Journal of Business Ethics 11:461–470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frijda N. H. (1986). The Emotions. University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Fukukawa K.(2002). Developing a Framework for Ethically Questionable Behavior in Consumption. Journal of Business Ethics 41(1–2):99–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudine A., Thorne L. (2001) Emotion and Ethical Decision-Making in Organizations. Journal of Business Ethics 31:175–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghingold M.(1981). Guilt Arousing Communications: An Unexplored Variable. Advances of Consumer Research 8:442–448

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman M.L. (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Huhmann B. A., Brotherton T. P.(1997). A Content Analysis of Guilt Appeals in Popular Magazine Advertisements. Journal of Advertising 26(2):35–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt S. D., Chonko L.(1984). Marketing and Machiavellianism. Journal of Marketing 48(3):30–42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt S. D. and S. J. Vitell: 1986. ‚A General Theory of␣Marketing Ethics’, Journal of Macromarketing 6, 5–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt S. D., Vitell S. J. (1993). the General Theory of Marketing Ethics: A Retrospective and Revision. In: Smith N. C., Quelch J. A. (eds). Ethics in Marketing. Irwin Inc, Homewood

    Google Scholar 

  • Inman J. J., Zeelenberg M. (2002). Regret in Repeat Purchase versus Swithing Decisions: The Attenuating Role of Decision Justifiability. Journal of Consumer Research 29(1):116–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jöreskog K., Sörbom D. (2002). Lisrel 8.53: Structural Equation Modeling with the SIMPLIS Command Language. SSI Scientific Software International, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Keltner D., Haidt J. (1999). Social Functions of Emotions at Four Levels of Analysis. Cognition and Emotion 13(5):505–521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lapidus R. S., Pinkerton L. P. (1995). Customer Complaint Situations: An Equity Theory Perspective. Psychology and Marketing 12(2):105–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Laros F. J. M., Steenkamp J.-B. E. M. (2005). Emotion sin Consumer Behavior: A Hierarchical Approach. Journal of business Research 58:1437–1445

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lascu D.-N. (1991). Consumer Guilt: Examining the Potential of a New Marketing Cosntruct. Advances in Consumer Research 18:290–295

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus R. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaption. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsey L. L. M. (2005). Anticipated Guilt as Behavioral Motivation – An Examination of Appeals to Help Unknown Others through Bone Marrow Donation. Human Communication Research 31(4):453–481

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks L. J., Mayo M. A. (1991). An Empirical Test of a Model of Consumer Ethical Dilemmas. Advances in Consumer Research 18:720–728

    Google Scholar 

  • Muncy J. A., Vitell S. J. (1992). Consumer Ethics: An Investigation of the Ethical Beliefs of the Final Consumer. Journal of Business Research 24(4):297–311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Keefe D.J. (2002). Guilt as a Mechanism of Persuasion. In: Dillard J.P., Pham M. (eds). The Persuasion Handbook, Developments in Theory and Practice. Sage, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker D., Manstead A. S. R., Stradling S. G. (1995). Extending the Theory of Planned Behavior: The Role of Personal Norm. British Journal of Social Psychology 34:127–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Perugini M., Bagozzi R. P. (2001). The Role of Desires and Anticipated Emotions in Goal-Directed Behaviors: Broadening and Deepening the Theory of Planned Behavior. British Journal of Psychology 40(1):79–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perugini M., Bagozzi R. P. (2004). An Alternative View of Pre-Volitional Processes in Decision Making: Conceptual Issues and Empirical Evidence. In: Haddock G., Maio G. R. (eds). Contemporary Perspectives on the Psychology of Attitudes. Psychology Press, Hove, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Rawwas M. Y. A. (1996). Consumer Ethics: An Empirical Investigation of the Ethical Beliefs of Austrian Consumers. Journal of Business Ethics 15(9):1009–1019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rawwas M. Y. A., Patzer G., Klassen M. (1995). Consumer Ethics in Cross Cultural Settings. European Journal of Marketing 29(7):62–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rawwas M. Y. A., Swaidan Z., Oyman M. (2005). Consumer Ethics: A Cross-Cultural Study of the Ethical Beliefs of Turkish and American Consumers. Journal of Business Ethics 57(2):183–195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richard R., J. Van der Pligt and N. K. De Vries: 1995,␣Anticipated Worry and Regret and Sexual Risk-Taking Behavior. Unpublished manuscript

  • Richard R., van der Pligt J., de Vries N. (1996). Anticipated Affect and Behavioral Choice. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 18:111–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richins M. L. (1997). Measuring Emotions in the Consumption Experience. Journal of Consumer Research 24:127–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roseman I. J., Wiest C., Swartz T. S. (1994). Phenomenology, Behaviors, and Goals Differentiate Discrete Emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67(2):206–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simonson I. (1992). The Influence of Anticipating Regret and Responsibility on Purchase Decisions. Journal of Consumer Research 19:105–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singhapakdi A., Rawwas M. Y. A., Marta J., Ahmed M. I. (1999). A Cross-Cultural Study of Consumer Perceptions about Marketing Ethics. Journal of Consumer Marketing 16(3):257–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skoe E. E. A., Eisenberg N., Cumberland A. (2002). The Role of Reported Emotion in Real-Life and Hypothetical Moral Dilemmas. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28(2):962–973

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steenhaut S., Van Kenhove P. (2005). Relationship Commitment and Ethical Consumer Behavior in a Retail Setting: The Case of Receiving Too Much Change at the Checkout. Journal of Business Ethics 56:335–353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strutton D., Vitell S. J., Pelton L. E. (1994). How Consumers may Justify Inappropriate Behavior in Market Settings: An Application on the Techniques of Neutralization. Journal of Business Research 30:253–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swaidan Z., Vitell S. J., Rawwas M. Y. A. (2003). Consumer Ethics: Determinants of Ethical Beliefs of African Americans. Journal of Business Ethics 46:175–186

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney J. P. (1992). Situational Determinants of Shame and Guilt in Young Adulthood. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18(2):199–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Tangney J. P. (1995). Shame and Guilt in Interpersonal Relationships. In: Tangney J. P., Fisher K. W. (eds). Self-Conscious Emotion: The Psychology of Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment, and Pride. Guilford Press, New York, pp. 114–139

    Google Scholar 

  • Tangney J. P. (1999). The Self-Conscious Emotions: Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment, and Pride. In: Dalgleish T., Power M. (eds). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 541–568

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney J. P., Dearing R. L. (2002). Shame and Guilt. The Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Tangney J. P., Dearing R. L., Wagner P. E., Gramzow R. (2000). The Test of Self-Conscious Affect-3(TOSCA-3). George Mason University, Fairfax

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsiros M., Mittal Vikas (2000). Regret: A Model of its Antecedents and Consequences in Consumer Decision Making. Journal of Consumer Research 26(4):401–417

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Kenhove P., Vermeir I., Verniers S. (2001). An Empirical Investigation of the Relationships between Ethical Beliefs, Ethical Ideology, Political Preference and Need for Closure. Journal of Business Ethics 32:347–361

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Kenhove P., De Wulf K., Steenhaut S. (2003). The Relationship between Consumers’ Unethical Behavior and Customer Loyalty in a Retail Environment. Journal of Business Ethics 44:261–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verbeke W., Bagozzi R. P. (2003). Exploring the Role of Self- and Customer-Provoked Embarrassment in Personal Setting. International Journal of Research in Marketing 20:233–258

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitell S. J. (2003). Consumer Ethics Research: Review, Synthesis and Suggestions for the Future. Journal of Business Ethics 43:33–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitell S. J., Paolillo J. G. P. (2003). Consumer Ethics: The Role of Religiosity. Journal of Business Ethics 46(2):151–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitell S. J., Paolillo J. G. P., Singh J. J. (2005). Religiosity and Consumer Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics 57(2):175–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitell S. J., Paolillo J. G. P., Singh J. J. (2006). the Role of Money & Religiosity in Determining Consumers’ Ethical Beliefs. Journal of Business Ethics 64(2):117–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitell S. J., Singhapakdi A., Thomas J. (2001). Consumer Ethics: An Application and Empirical Testing of the Hunt-Vitell Theory of Ethics. Journal of Consumer Marketing 18:153–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner S. C., Sanders G. L. (2001). Considerations in Ethical Decision-Making and Software Piracy. Journal of Business Ethics 29(1–2):161–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeelenberg M., Beattie J. (1997). Consequences of Regret Aversion 2: Additional Evidence for Effects of Feedback on Decision Making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 72:63–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeelenberg M., Van Dijk W.W., Manstead A.S.R., Van der Pligt J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. Cognition and Emotion 12(2):221–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research Center for Consumer Psychology and Marketing, Gent University, Fac. of Econ. & Bus. Admin., Hoveniersberg 24, Gent, 9000, Belgium

    Sarah Steenhaut & Patrick Van Kenhove

Authors
  1. Sarah Steenhaut
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Patrick Van Kenhove
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Steenhaut.

Appendices

Appendix

Vignettes

Study 1

A typical Saturday... You are in a retail shop doing your weekly shopping.

At the checkout you are not able to pay the exact amount. When receiving the change, you notice the cashier made a mistake and gives you too much change...

Study 2

Low salience condition

A typical Saturday... You are in a retail shop doing your weekly shopping.

At the checkout you are not able to pay the exact amount. When receiving the change, you notice the cashier made a mistake and gives you too much change...

You see no reason why it would be wrong to keep silent about this miscalculation as nothing or no one would be harmed by it...

High salience condition

A typical Saturday... You are in a retail shop doing your weekly shopping.

At the checkout you are not able to pay the exact amount. When receiving the change, you notice the cashier made a mistake and gives you too much change...

You know it would be very wrong to keep silent about this miscalculation as this would have severe consequences for the cashier: he/she might be reprimanded, she might have to pay the deficit out of own pocket. Maybe the cashier might even be fired...

List of scale items

Ethical ideology (Forsyth, 1980)

Idealism

  1. 1.

    A person should make certain that their actions never intentionally harm another even to a small degree.

  2. 2.

    Risks to another should never be tolerated, irrespective of how small the risks might be.

  3. 3.

    The existence of potential harm to others is always wrong, irrespective of the benefits gained.

  4. 4.

    One should never psychologically or physically harm another person.

  5. 5.

    One should not perform an action that might in any way threaten the dignity and welfare of another individual.

  6. 6.

    If an action could harm an innocent other, then it should not be done.

  7. 7.

    Deciding whether or not to perform an act by balancing the positive consequences of the act against the negative consequences of the act is immoral.

  8. 8.

    The dignity and welfare of people should be␣the most important concern in any society

  9. 9.

    It’s never necessary to sacrifice the welfare of others.

  10. 10.

    Moral actions are those which closely match ideals of the most “perfect” action.

Relativism

  1. 1.

    There are no ethical principles that are so important that they should be a part of any code of ethics.

  2. 2.

    What is ethical varies form one situation and society to another.

  3. 3.

    Moral standards should be seen as being individualistic; what one person considers being moral may be judged to be immoral by another person.

  4. 4.

    Different types of moralities cannot be compared as to rightness.

  5. 5.

    What is ethical for everyone can never be resolved since what is moral or immoral is up to the individual.

  6. 6.

    Moral standards are simply personal rules which indicate how a person should behave, and are not to be applied in making judgments of others.

  7. 7.

    Ethical considerations in interpersonal relations are so complex that individuals should be allowed to formulate their own individual codes.

  8. 8.

    Rigidly codifying an ethical position that prevents certain types of actions stand in the way of better human relations and adjustment.

  9. 9.

    No rule concerning lying can be formulated; whether a lie is permissible or not permissible totally depends upon the situation.

  10. 10.

    Whether a lie is judged to be immoral depends␣upon the circumstances surrounding the actions.

Ethical beliefs

  1. 1.

    Good – Bad

  2. 2.

    Acceptable – Unacceptable

  3. 3.

    Ethical – Unethical

Anticipated guilt (Roseman et al., 1994)

  1. 1.

    I would feel tension

  2. 2.

    I would feel remorse

  3. 3.

    I would think that I was in the wrong

  4. 4.

    I would think that I shouldn’t have done what I did

  5. 5.

    I would feel like undoing what I have done

  6. 6.

    I would feel like punishing myself

  7. 7.

    I would apologize

  8. 8.

    I would avoid meeting people’s gaze

  9. 9.

    I would want to make up for what I have done wrong

  10. 10.

    I would want to be forgiven

Ethical intentions

  1. 1.

    Unlikely – Likely

  2. 2.

    Improbably – Probably

Machiavellianism (MACH IV, Christie and Geis, 1970)

  1. 1.

    Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so.

  2. 2.

    The best way to handle people is to tell them what they want to hear.

  3. 3.

    One should take action only when sure it is morally right.

  4. 4.

    Most people are basically good and kind.

  5. 5.

    It is safest to assume that all people have a vicious streak and it will come out when given the chance.

  6. 6.

    Honesty is the best policy in all cases.

  7. 7.

    There is no excuse for lying to someone else.

  8. 8.

    Generally speaking, people won’t work hard unless they’re forced to do so.

  9. 9.

    All in all, it is better to be humble and honest than to be important and dishonest.

  10. 10.

    When you ask someone to do something for you, it is best to give the real reasons for wanting it rather than giving reasons which carry more weight.

  11. 11.

    People who get ahead in the world lead clean, moral lives.

  12. 12.

    Anyone who completely trusts others is asking for big trouble.

  13. 13.

    The biggest difference between criminals and others is that criminals are stupid enough to get caught.

  14. 14.

    Most people are brave.

  15. 15.

    It is wise to flatter important people.

  16. 16.

    It is possible to be good in all respects.

  17. 17.

    Barnum was wrong when he said that there’s a sucker born every minute.

  18. 18.

    It is hard to get ahead without cutting corners.

  19. 19.

    People suffering from incurable diseases should have the choice of being put painlessly to death.

  20. 20.

    Most people forget more easily the death of their father than the loss of their property.

Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA 3, Tangney et al., 2000)

  1. 1.

    You make plans to meet a friend for lunch. At 5 o’clock, you realize you stood him up.

    1. (a)

      You would think: “I’m inconsiderate.” (shame)

    2. (b)

      You would think: “Well, they’ll understand.” (detached)

    3. (c)

      You’d think you should make it up to him as soon as possible. (guilt)

    4. (d)

      You would think: “My boss distracted me just before lunch.” (externalization)

  2. 2.

    You break something at work and then hide it.

    1. (a)

      You would think: “This is making me anxious. I need to either fix it or get someone else to.” (guilt)

    2. (b)

      You would think about quitting. (shame)

    3. (c)

      You would think: “A lot of things aren’t made very well these days. (externalization)

    4. (d)

      You would think: “It was only an accident.” (detached)

  3. 3.

    You are out with friends one evening, and you’re feeling especially witty and attractive. Your best friend’s spouse seems to particularly enjoy you company.

    1. (a)

      You would think: “I should have been aware of what my best friend is feeling.” (guilt)

    2. (b)

      You would feel happy with your appearance and personality. (alpha pride)

    3. (c)

      You would feel pleased to have made such a good impression. (beta pride)

    4. (d)

      You would think your best friend should pay attention to his/her spouse. (externalization)

    5. (e)

      You would probably avoid eye-contact for a long time. (shame)

  4. 4.

    At work, you wait until the last minute to plan a project, and it turns out badly.

    1. (a)

      You would feel incompetent. (shame)

    2. (b)

      You would think: “There are never enough hours in the day.” (externalization)

    3. (c)

      You would feel: “I deserve to be reprimanded for mismanaging the project.” (guilt)

    4. (d)

      You would think: “What’s done is done.” (detached)

  5. 5.

    You make a mistake at work and find out a co-worker is blamed for the error.

    1. (a)

      You would think the company did not like the co-worker. (externalization)

    2. (b)

      You would think: “Life is not fair.” (detached)

    3. (c)

      You would keep quiet and avoid the co-worker. (shame)

    4. (d)

      You would feel unhappy and eager to correct the situation. (guilt)

  6. 6.

    For several days you put off making a difficult phone call. At the last minute you make the call and are able to manipulate the conversation so that all goes well.

    1. (a)

      You would think: “I guess I’m more persuasive than I thought.” (alpha pride)

    2. (b)

      You would regret that you put it off. (guilt)

    3. (c)

      You would feel like a coward. (shame)

    4. d)

      You would think: “I did a good job.” (beta pride)

    5. (e)

      You would think you shouldn’t have to make calls you feel pressured into. (externalization)

  7. 7.

    While playing around, you throw a ball and it hits your friend in the face.

    1. (a)

      You would feel inadequate that you can’t even throw a ball. (shame)

    2. (b)

      You would think maybe your friend needs more practice at catching. (externalization)

    3. (c)

      You would think: “It was just an accident.” (detached)

    4. (d)

      You would apologize and make sure your friend feels better. (guilt)

  8. 8.

    You have recently moved away from your family, and everyone has been very helpful. A few times you needed to borrow money, but you paid it back as soon as you could.

    1. (a)

      You would feel immature. (shame)

    2. (b)

      You would think: “I sure ran into some bad luck.” (externalization)

    3. (c)

      You would return the favor as quickly as you could. (guilt)

    4. (d)

      You would think: “I am a trustworthy person.” (alpha pride)

    5. (e)

      You would be proud that you repaid your debts. (beta pride)

  9. 9.

    You are driving down the road, and you hit a small animal.

    1. (a)

      You would think the animal shouldn’t have been on the road. (externalization)

    2. (b)

      You would think: “I’m terrible.” (shame)

    3. (c)

      You would feel: “Well, it was an accident.” (detached)

    4. (d)

      You’d feel bad you hadn’t been more alert driving down the road. (guilt)

  10. 10.

    You walk out of an exam thinking you did extremely well. Then you find out you did poorly.

    1. (a)

      You would think: “Well, it’s just a test.” (detached)

    2. (b)

      You would think: “The instructor doesn’t like me.” (externalization)

    3. (c)

      You would think: “I should have studied harder.” (guilt)

    4. (d)

      You would feel stupid. (shame)

  11. 11.

    You and a group of co-workers worked very hard on a project. Your boss singles you out for a bonus because the project was such a success.

    1. (a)

      You would feel the boss is rather short-sighted. (externalization)

    2. (b)

      You would feel alone and apart from your colleagues. (shame)

    3. (c)

      You would feel your hard work had paid off. (beta pride)

    4. (d)

      You would feel competent and proud of yourself. (alpha pride)

    5. (e)

      You would feel you should not accept it. (guilt)

  12. 12.

    While out with a group of friends, you make fun of a friend who’s not there.

    1. (a)

      You would think: “It was all in fun; it’s harmless.” (detached)

    2. (b)

      You would feel small...like a rat. (shame)

    3. (c)

      You would think that perhaps that friend should have been there to defend himself/herself. (externalization)

    4. (d)

      You would apologize and talk about that person’s. (guilt)

  13. 13.

    You make a big mistake on an important project at work. People were depending on you, and your boss criticizes you.

    1. (a)

      You would think your boss should have been more clear about what was expected of you. (externalization)

    2. (b)

      You would feel like you wanted to hide. (shame)

    3. (c)

      You would think: “I should have recognized the problem and done a better job.” (guilt)

    4. (d)

      You would think: “Well, nobody’s perfect.” (detached)

  14. 14.

    You volunteer to help with the local Special Olympics for handicapped children. It turns out to be frustrating and time-consuming work. You think seriously about quitting, but then you see how happy the kids are.

    1. (a)

      You would feel selfish and you’d think you are basically lazy. (shame)

    2. (b)

      You would feel you were forced into doing something you did not want to do. (externalization)

    3. (c)

      You would think: “I should be more concerned about people who are less fortunate.” (guilt)

    4. (d)

      You would feel great that you had helped others. (beta pride)

    5. (e)

      You would feel very satisfied with yourself. (alpha pride)

  15. 15.

    You are taking care of your friend’s dog while they are on vacation and the dog runs away.

    1. (a)

      You would think, “I am irresponsible and incompetent.” (shame)

    2. (b)

      You would think your friend must not take very good care of their dog or it wouldn’t have run away. (externalization)

    3. (c)

      You would vow to be more careful next time. (guilt)

    4. (d)

      You would think your friend could just get a new dog. (detached)

  16. 16.

    You attend your co-worker’s housewarming party and you spill red wine on their new cream-colored carpet, but you think no one notices.

    1. (a)

      You think your co-worker should have expected some accidents at such a big party. (detached)

    2. (b)

      You would stay late to help clean up the stain after the party. (guilt)

    3. (c)

      You would wish you were anywhere but at the party. (shame)

    4. (d)

      You would wonder why your co-worker chose to serve red wine with the new light carpet. (externalization)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Steenhaut, S., Van Kenhove, P. The Mediating Role of Anticipated Guilt in Consumers’ Ethical Decision-Making. J Bus Ethics 69, 269–288 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9090-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9090-9

KEY WORDS

Search

Navigation