Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Environmental Risks and Cost-Effective Risk Management in Wastewater Use Systems

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Wastewater

Abstract

Wastewater use in agriculture has many potential benefits, yet it also poses environmental risks. In particular, the use of untreated or partially treated wastewater over the long run may result in negative impacts on irrigated crops, soils, and groundwater through the addition of excessive levels of metals and metalloids, nutrients, salts and specific ionic species, and micro- pollutants. The environmental risk reduction strategies for wastewater can be categorized into: (1) treatment of wastewater to a desired effluent quality; (2) on-farm wastewater treatment options; and (3) farm-based measures to reduce risks in areas irrigated by untreated or partially treated wastewater. However, the number of strategies that have been economically assessed and have proven to be cost-effective is rather limited, although all mention a positive impact. Despite limited examples, the economics of risk management reveal that cost-effective options for improving water quality by removing undesirable constituents are available at the treatment plant level and beyond.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abaidoo RC, Keraita B, Drechsel P, Dissanayake P, Maxwell AS (2010) Soil and crop contamination through wastewater irrigation and options for risk reduction in developing countries. In: Dion P (ed) Soil biology and agriculture in the tropics. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 498–535

    Google Scholar 

  • Bino M, Al-Beiruti S, Ayesh M (2008) Greywater use in rural home gardens in Karek, Jordan. In McIlwaine S, Redwood M (eds) Greywater in the Middle East; technical social and policy issues. http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications/Pages/IDRCBookDetails.aspx?PublicationID=92. Accessed 25 Aug 2014

    Google Scholar 

  • Bos R, Carr R, Keraita B (2010) Assessing and mitigating wastewater related health risks in low-income countries: an introduction. In: Drechsel P, Scott CA, Raschid-Sally L, Redwood M, Bahri A (eds) Wastewater irrigation and health: assessing and mitigating risks in low-income countries, Earthscan-International Development Research Centre (IDRC)-International Water Management Institute (IWMI), pp 29–47, London and Ottawa

    Google Scholar 

  • Boxall ABA, Johnson P, Smith EJ, Sinclair CJ, Stutt E, Levy LS (2006) Uptake of veterinary medicines from soils into plants. J Agric Food Chem 54:2288–2297

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conagua (2014) National water commission. www.conagua.gob.mx. Accessed 25 Aug 2014

  • Corcoran E, Nellemann C, Baker E, Bos R, Osborn D, Savelli H (eds) (2010) Sick water? The central role of wastewater management in sustainable development. A rapid response assessment. UNEP/UNHABITAT. Available at http://www.unep.org/pdf/SickWater_screen.pdf. Accessed 25 Aug 2014

  • Dalkmann P, Broszat M, Siebe C, Willaschek E, Sakinc T, Hübner J, Amelung W, Siemens J (2012) Accumulation of pharmaceuticals, enterococcus, and resistance genes in soils irrigated with wastewater for zero to 100 years in central Mexico. PLoS One e45397. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045397

    Google Scholar 

  • Durán-Alvárez JC, Prado Pano B, Jiménez B (2012) Sorption and desorption of carbamazepine, naproxen and triclosan on soil irrigated with raw wastewater: the influence of the initial content. Chemosphere 88:84–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ensink JHJ, Scott CA, Brooker S, Cairncross S (2010) Sewage disposal in the Musi-River, India: Water quality remediation through irrigation infrastructure. Irrig Drain Syst 24:65–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Medicines Agency (2006) Pre-Authorisation evaluation of medicines for human use. Doc. Ref. EMEA/CHMP/SWP/4447/00 corr 1*. http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Scientific_guideline/2009/10/WC500003978.pdf. Accessed 5 Dec 2014

  • Ganoulis J (2012) Risk analysis of wastewater reuse in agriculture. Int J Recycl Org Waste in Agric 1:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta N, Khan DK, Santra SC (2012) Heavy metal accumulation in vegetables grown in a long-term wastewater-irrigated agricultural land of tropical India. Environ Monit Assess 184:6673–6682

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton AJ, Boland A-M, Stevens D, Kelly J, Radcliffe J, Ziehrl A, Dillon PJ, Paulin R (2005) Position of the Australian horticultural industry with respect to the use of reclaimed water. Agric Water Manage 71:181–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton AJ, Stagnitti F, Xiong X, Kreidl SL, Benke KK, Maher P (2007) Wastewater irrigation the state of play. Vedose Zone J 6:823–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanjra MA, Blackwell J, Carr G, Zhang F, Jackson TM (2011) Wastewater irrigation and environmental health: Implications for water governance and public policy. Int J Hygiene Environ Health 215:255–269

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassan AK, Nangia V, Singh M (2013) Soil salinity management in Iraq using indigenous soil management techniques-analysis of biophysical and socioeconomic data. Paper presented at the ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual International Meeting, November 3–6, Tampa, FL, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • Hernández-Sancho F, Molinos-Senante M, Sala-Garrido R (2010) Economic valuation of environmental benefits from wastewater treatment processes: an empirical approach for Spain. Sci Total Environ 408:953–957

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez B (2011) Safe sanitation in low economic development areas, treatise M.Sc. 82. In: Wilderer P (ed) Treatise on water science, vol 4. Academic Press, Oxford, pp 147–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez B, Carranza F, Medina N (2011) Wastewater agricultural reuse in nicaragua: extent, actual practices, perception and perspectives. J Water Reuse Desalin 1:185–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez B, Chavez A, Barrios J, Durán Álvarez J (2014) Ecosystem services balance for the Valley of Tula and the metropolitan area of Mexico City (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Keraita B, Drechsel P, Konradsen F (2008) Using on-farm sedimentation ponds to improve microbial quality of irrigation water in urban vegetable farming in Ghana. Water Sci Technol 57:519–525

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keraita B, Drechsel P, Konradsen F (2010) Up and down the sanitation ladder: harmonizing the treatment and multiple-barrier perspectives on risk reduction in wastewater irrigated agriculture. Irrig Drain Syst 24:23–35 (Special Issue on Wastewater Reuse)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarova V, Bahri A (2005) Water reuse for irrigation: agriculture, landscapes, and turf grass. CRC, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Libhaber M, Orozco-Jaramillo A (2013) Sustainable treatment of municipal wastewater. Water 21(2013):25–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Maas EV, Grattan SR (1999) Crop yields as affected by salinity. In: Skaggs RW, van Schilfgaarde J (eds) Agricultural drainage. ASA-CSSA-SSSA, Madison, pp 55–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Maas EV, Hoffman GJ (1977) Crop salt tolerance—current assessment. J Irrig Drain Div 103:115–134

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer BK, Gerrity D, Rittmann BE, Reisinger D, Brandt-Williams S (2013) Innovative strategies to achieve low total phosphorus concentrations in high water flows. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 43:409–441

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Molinos-Senante M, Hernández-Sancho F, Sala-Garrido R (2012) Economic feasibility study for new technological alternatives in wastewater treatment processes: a review. Water Sci Technol 65:898–906

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molinos-Senante M, Reif R, Garrido-Baserba M, Hernández-Sancho F, Omil F, Poch M, Sala-Garrido R (2013) Economic valuation of environmental benefits of removing pharmaceutical and personal care products from WWTP effluents by ozonation. Sci Total Environ 461–462:409–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Money CA, Ramasami T, Chandra Babu NK, Muralidharan C, Ragava Rao J, Saravanan P, Amudeswari A, Mandal AB, Montgomery K, Hickey M, Simpson C, Huynh C, Siekris R (2009) Salinity reduction in tannery effluents in India and Australia. ACIAR project (AH/2001/005) Final Report, Australian centre for international agricultural research, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Murtaza G (2014) Economic aspects of growing rice and wheat crops on salt-affected soils in the Indus Basin of Pakistan (unpublished data). Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad

    Google Scholar 

  • Nhapi I, Mawere M, Veenstra S, Gijzen H (2002) Effluent polishing via pasture irrigation in Harare, Zimbabwe. Water Sci Technol 46:287–295

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oster JD, Shainberg I, Abrol IP (1999) Reclamation of salt affected soils. In: Skaggs RW, van Schilfgaarde J (eds) Agricultural drainage. ASA-CSSA-SSSA, Madison, pp 659–691

    Google Scholar 

  • Pescod MB (1992) Wastewater treatment and use in agriculture. Irrigation and drainage Paper No. 47, Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Qadir M, Drechsel P (2010) Managing salts while irrigating with wastewater. CAB Rev Perspect Agric Vet Sci Nutr Nat Resour 5(016):1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Qadir M, Schubert S (2002) Degradation processes and nutrient constraints in sodic soils. Land Degrad Develop 13:275–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qadir M, Scott CA (2010) Non-pathogenic tradeoffs of wastewater irrigation. In: Drechsel P, Scott CA, Raschid-Sally L, Redwood M, Bahri A (eds) Wastewater irrigation and health: assessing and mitigating risks in low-income countries. Earthscan-International Development Research Centre (IDRC)-International Water Management Institute (IWMI), UK, pp 101–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Qadir M, Ghafoor A, Murtaza G (2000) Cadmium concentration in vegetables grown on urban soils irrigated with untreated municipal sewage. Environ Develop Sustain 2:11–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qadir M, Sharma BR, Bruggeman A, Choukr-Allah R, Karajeh F (2007) Non-conventional water resources and opportunities for water augmentation to achieve food security in water scarce countries. Agric Water Manage 87:2–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rai PK (2012) An eco-sustainable green approach for heavy metals management: two case studies of developing industrial region. Environ Monit Assess 184:421–448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reymond P, Cofie O, Raschid L, Koné D (2009) Design considerations and constraints in applying on-farm wastewater treatment for urban agriculture. Paper presented at the 4th SWITCH Scientific Meeting, 4–7 October 2009, Delft, the Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  • Römkens P, Bouwman L, Japenga J, Draaisma C (2001) Potentials and drawbacks of chelate-enhanced phytoremediation of soils. Environ Pollut 116:109–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salt DE, Blaylock M, Kumar PBAN, Dushenkov S, Ensley BD, Chet I, Raskin I (1996) Phytoremediation: a novel strategy for the removal of toxic metals from the environment using plants. Biotech 13:468–474

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sato T, Qadir M, Yamamoto S, Endo T, Zahoor A (2013) Global, regional, and country level need for data on wastewater generation, treatment, and reuse. Agric Water Manage 130:1–13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siemens J, Huschek G, Siebe C, Kaupenjohann M (2008) Concentrations and mobility of human pharmaceuticals in the world’s largest wastewater irrigation system, Mexico City-Mezquital Valley. Water Res 42:2124–2134

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons RW, Qadir M, Drechsel P (2010) Farm-based measures for reducing human and environmental health risks from chemical constituents in wastewater. In: Drechsel P, Scott CA, Raschid-Sally L, Redwood M, Bahri A (eds) Wastewater irrigation and health: assessing and mitigating risks in low-income countries. Earthscan-International Development Research Centre (IDRC)-International Water Management Institute (IWMI), pp 209–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens D, McLaughlin MJ (2006) Managing risks to soil and plant health from key metals and metalloids in irrigation waters. In: Stevens D (ed) Growing crops with reclaimed wastewater. CSIRO Publishing, Canberra, Australia pp 139–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang C, Chen J, Shindo S, Sakura Y, Zhang W, Shen Y (2004) Assessment of groundwater contamination by nitrates associated with wastewater irrigation: a case study in Shijiazhuang region, China. Hydrol Process 18:2303–2312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanji K, Kielen NC (2002) Agricultural drainage water management in arid and semi-arid areas. Irrigation and drainage paper no. 61, Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy

    Google Scholar 

  • Toze S (2006) Reuse of effluent water-benefits and risks. Agric Water Manage 80:147–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tziakis I, Pachiadakis I, Moraitakis M, Xideas K, Theologis G, Tsagarakis KP (2009) Valuing benefits from wastewater treatment and reuse using contingent valuation methodology. Desalination 237:117–125

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (World Health Organization) (2006) Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and grey water: (vol 2) wastewater use in agriculture. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health, 175 Longwood Road South, Ontario, L8P 0A1, Hamilton, Canada

    Manzoor Qadir

  2. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka

    Javier Mateo-Sagasta

  3. Division of Water Sciences, International Hydrological Programme, UNESCO, rue Miollis—75732 Paris Cedex 15, Paris, France

    Blanca Jiménez

  4. Institute of Engineering, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico

    Blanca Jiménez

  5. Instituto de Geología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cd. Universitaria, CP 04510, Mexico City, D.F., Mexico

    Christina Siebe

  6. Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Division Soil Science and Soil Ecology, University of Bonn, Nussallee, 53115, Bonn, Germany

    Jan Siemens

  7. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Pretoria, South Africa

    Munir A. Hanjra

Authors
  1. Manzoor Qadir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Javier Mateo-Sagasta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Blanca Jiménez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Christina Siebe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jan Siemens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Munir A. Hanjra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Manzoor Qadir .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Int. Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka

    Pay Drechsel

  2. United Nations University Institute for Water, Env. and Health, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

    Manzoor Qadir

  3. Agricultural Water Management, Bloomington, Indiana, USA

    Dennis Wichelns

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Qadir, M., Mateo-Sagasta, J., Jiménez, B., Siebe, C., Siemens, J., Hanjra, M. (2015). Environmental Risks and Cost-Effective Risk Management in Wastewater Use Systems. In: Drechsel, P., Qadir, M., Wichelns, D. (eds) Wastewater. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9545-6_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation