Abstract
This paper reviews past and ongoing ecological studies at the Takayama forest site, one of Japan’s long-term research sites with intensive studies; the emphasis here is on the synergies between observational and modeling studies. This synergism has been encouraged because global environmental change is a complicated and interdisciplinary issue that requires this type of collaboration. The increasing amount and quality of observational data available from this site helps researchers to better constrain their model simulations because substantial uncertainties remain in the behavior of models in their current form. In addition, modeling studies encourage observational research by integrating observational data within a comprehensive framework. They do this by demanding more long-term and high-quality data related to specific ecological processes, and by identifying high-priority processes and parameters that should be studied. We describe the types of modeling studies that have been conducted and how observational data from the Takayama site have improved the accuracy of these models. Many terrestrial ecosystem models have been applied to data from the site, both to validate the present forms of the models and to refine the structure and parameterization of the models. The development of new or improved terrestrial ecosystem models will be further facilitated by the requirements to simulate atmosphere–ecosystem exchanges and internal biogeochemical processes, as well as simulating their responses to a changing environment. We conclude by discussing the remaining research gaps and opportunities for deepening our understanding of terrestrial ecosystems through future collaborative studies.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alexandrov GA, Yamagata Y, Saigusa N, Oikawa T (2005) Re-calibrating TsuBiMo with eddy-covariance measurements at Takayama. Agr For Meteorol 134:135–142
Baldocchi D, Falge E, Gu L, Olson R, Hollinger D, Running S, Anthoni P, Bernhofer C, Davis K, Evans R, Fuentes J, Goldstein A, Katul G, Law B, Lee X, Malhi Y, Meyers T, Munger W, Oechel W, Pau UKT, Pilegaard K, Schmid HP, Valentini R, Verma S, Vesala T, Wilson K, Wofsy S (2001) FLUXNET: a new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 82:2415–2434
Baldocchi DD, Black TA, Curtis PS, Falge E, Fuentes JD, Granier A, Gu L, Knohl A, Pilegaard K, Schmid HP, Valentini R, Wilson K, Wofsy S, Xu L, Yamamoto S (2005) Predicting the onset of net carbon uptake by deciduous forests with soil temperature and climate data: a synthesis of FLUXNET data. Int J Biometeorol 49:377–387
Chen L, Driscoll CT, Gbondo-Tugbawa S, Mitchell MJ, Murdoch PS (2004) The application of an integrated biogeochemical model (PnET-BGC) to five forested watersheds in the Adirondack and Catskill regions of New York. Hydrol Proc 18:2631–2650
Chung H, Muraoka H, Nakamura M, Han S, Muller O, Son Y (2013) Experimental warming studies on tree species and forest ecosystems: a literature review. J Plant Res 126:447–460. doi:10.1007/s10265-013-0565-3
Cox PM (2001) Description of the “TRIFFID” dynamic global vegetation model. Hadley Centre Technical Note 24, United Kingdom Meteorological Office, pp 16
Hadano M, Nasahara KN, Motohka T, Noda HM, Murakami K, Hosaka M (2013) High-resolution prediction of leaf onset date in Japan in the 21st century under the IPCC A1B scenario. Ecol Evol 3:1798–1807. doi:10.1002/ece3.575
Higuchi K, Shashkov A, Chan D, Saigusa N, Murayama S, Yamamoto S, Kondo H, Chen J, Liu J, Chen B (2005) Simulations of seasonal and inter-annual variability of gross primary production at Takayama with BEPS ecosystem model. Agr For Meteorol 134:143–150
Hirata R, Saigusa N, Yamamoto S, Ohtani Y, Ide R, Asanuma J, Gamo M, Hirano T, Kondo H, Kosugi Y, Li SG, Nakai Y, Takagi K, Tani M, Wang H (2008) Spatial distribution of carbon balance in forest ecosystem across East Asia. Agr For Meteorol 148:761–775. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2007.11.016
Ichii K, Kondo M, Lee YH, Wang SQ, Kim J, Ueyama M, Lim HJ, Shi H, Suzuki T, Ito A, Ju W, Huang M, Sasai T, Asanuma J, Han S, Hirano T, Hirata R, Kato T, Kwon H, Li SG, Li YN, Maeda T, Miyata A, Matsuura Y, Murayama S, Nakai Y, Ohta T, Saitoh TM, Saigusa N, Takagi K, Tang YH, Wang HM, Yu GR, Zhang YP, Zaho FH (2013) Site-level model-data synthesis of terrestrial carbon fluxes in the CarboEastAsia eddy-covariance observation network: toward future modeling efforts. J For Res 18:13–20. doi:10.1007/s10310-012-0367-9
Inatomi M, Ito A, Ishijima K, Murayama S (2010) Greenhouse gas budget of a cool temperate deciduous broadleaved forest in Japan estimated using a process-based model. Ecosys 13:472–483. doi:10.1007/s10021-010-9332-7
Ito A (2008) The regional carbon budget of East Asia simulated with a terrestrial ecosystem model and validated using AsiaFlux data. Agr For Meteorol 148:738–747. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2007.12.007
Ito A (2010a) Changing ecophysiological processes and carbon budget in East Asian ecosystems under near-future changes in climate: implications for long-term monitoring from a process-based model. J Plant Res 123:577–588. doi:10.1007/s10265-009-0305-x
Ito A (2010b) Evaluation of defoliation impacts of tropical cyclones on the forest carbon budget using flux data and a process-based model. J Geophys Res 115:G04013. doi:10.1029/2010JG001314
Ito A, Saigusa N, Murayama S, Yamamoto S (2005) Modeling of gross and net carbon dioxide exchange over a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in Japan: analysis of seasonal and interannual change. Agr For Meteorol 134:122–134
Ito A, Muraoka H, Koizumi H, Saigusa N, Murayama S, Yamamoto S (2006) Seasonal variation in leaf properties and ecosystem carbon budget in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest: simulation analysis at Takayama site, Japan. Ecol Res 21:137–149
Ito A, Inatomi M, Mo W, Lee M, Koizumi H, Saigusa N, Murayama S, Yamamoto S (2007) Examination of model-estimated ecosystem respiration using flux measurements data from a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in central Japan. Tellus 59B:616–624
Ito A, Ichii K, Kato T (2010) Spatial and temporal patterns of soil respiration over the Japanese Archipelago: a model intercomparison study. Ecol Res 25:1033–1044. doi:10.1007/s11284-010-0729-8
Jia S, Akiyama T (2005) A precise, unified method for estimating carbon storage in cool-temperate deciduous forest ecosystems. Agr For Meteorol 134:70–80
Jin P, Wang Q, Iio A, Tenhunen J (2012) Retrieval of seasonal variation in photosynthetic capacity from multi-source vegetation indices. Ecol Inform 7:7–18
Kamakura M, Kosugi Y, Muramatsu K, Muraoka H (2012) Simulations and observations of patchy stomatal behavior in leaves of Quercus crispula, a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved tree species. J Plant Res 125:339–349. doi:10.1007/s10265-011-0460-8
Kato T, Tang Y (2008) Spatial variability and major controlling factors of CO2 sink strength in Asian terrestrial ecosystems: evidence from eddy covariance data. Global Change Biol 14:2333–2348. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01646.x
Kira T, Shidei T (1967) Primary production and turnover of organic matter in different forest ecosystems of the Western Pacific. Jpn J Ecol 17:70–87
Kitagawa H, Matsumoto E (1995) Climatic implications of δ13C variations in a Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) during the last two millennia. Geophys Res Lett 22:2155–2158
Kondo H, Saigusa N, Murayama S, Yamamoto S, Kannari A (2001) A numerical simulation of the daily variation of CO2 in the central part of Japan–summer case. J Meteor Soc Jpn 79:11–21
Kondo MY, Muraoka H, Uchida M, Yazaki Y, Koizumi H (2005) Refixation of respired CO2 by understory vegetation in a cool-temperate deciduous forest in Japan. Agr For Meteorol 134:110–121
Kondo MS, Ichii K, Ueyama M, Mizoguchi Y, Hirata R, Saigusa N (2013) The role of carbon flux and biometric observations in constraining a terrestrial ecosystem model: a case study in disturbed forests in East Asia. Ecol Res 28:893–905. doi:10.1007/s11284-013-1072-7
Kuribayashi M, Noh NJ, Saitoh TM, Tamagawa I, Wakazuki Y, Muraoka H (2013) Comparison of snow water equivalent estimated in central Japan by high-resolution simulations using different land-surface models. Sola 9:148–152. doi:10.2151/sola.2013-033
Lee MS, Nakane K, Nakatsubo T, Koizumi H (2005) The importance of root respiration in annual soil carbon fluxes in a cool-temperate deciduous forest. Agr For Meteorol 134:95–101
Likens GE (2004) Some perspectives on long-term biogeochemical research from the Hubbard Brook ecosystem study. Ecol 85:2355–2362
Luo Y, Ogle K, Tucker C, Fei S, Gao C, LaDeau S, Clark JS, Schimel DS (2011) Ecological forecasting and data assimilation in a data-rich era. Ecol Appl 21:1429–1442
Mo W, Lee MS, Uchida M, Inatomi M, Saigusa N, Mariko S, Koizumi H (2005) Seasonal and annual variations in soil respiration in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in Japan. Agr For Meteorol 134:81–94
Muraoka H, Koizumi H (2005) Photosynthetic and structural characteristics of canopy and shrub trees in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest: implications to the ecosystem carbon gain. Agr For Meteorol 134:39–59
Muraoka H, Koizumi H (2009) Satellite ecology (SATECO)—linking ecology, remote sensing and micrometeorology, from plot to regional scale, for the study of ecosystem structure and function. J Plant Res 122:3–20. doi:10.1007/s10265-008-0188-2
Muraoka H, Saigusa N, Nasahara KN, Noda H, Yoshino J, Saitoh TM, Nagai S, Murayama S, Koizumi H (2010) Effects of seasonal and interannual variations in leaf photosynthesis and canopy leaf area index on gross primary production of a cool-temperate deciduous broadleaf forest in Takayama site. J Plant Res 123:563–576. doi:10.1007/s10265-009-0270-4
Muraoka H, Noda HM, Nagai S, Motohka T, Saitoh TM, Nasahara KN, Saigusa N (2013) Spectral vegetation indices as the indicator of canopy photosynthetic productivity in a deciduous broadleaf forest. J Plant Ecol 6:393–407. doi:10.1093/jpe/rts037
Murayama S, Yamamoto S, Saigusa N, Kondo H, Takamura C (2005) Statistical analyses of inter-annual variations in the vertical profile of atmospheric CO2 mixing ratio and carbon budget in a cool-temperate deciduous forest in Japan. Agr For Meteorol 134:17–26
Murayama S, Takamura C, Yamamoto S, Saigusa N, Morimoto S, Kondo H, Nakazawa T, Aoki S, Usami T, Kondo M (2010) Seasonal variations of atmospheric CO2, δ13C, and δ18O at a cool temperate deciduous forest in Japan: influence of Asian monsoon. J Geophys Res 115:D17304. doi:10.1029/2009JD013626
Nagai S, Saitoh TM, Noh NJ, Yoon TK, Kobayashi H, Suzuki R, Nasahara KN, Son Y, Muraoka H (2013) Utility of information in photographs taken upwards from the floor of closed canopy deciduous broadleaved and closed-canopy evergreen coniferous forests for continuous observation of canopy phenology. Ecol Inform 18:10–19. doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2013.05.005
Nasahara KN, Muraoka H, Nagai S, Mikami H (2008) Vertical integration of leaf area index in a Japanese deciduous broad-leaved forest. Agr For Meteorol 148:1136–1146. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2008.02.011
Nishina K, Ito A, Beerling DJ, Cadule P, Ciais P, Clark DB, Falloon P, Friend AD, Kahana R, Kato E, Keribin R, Lucht W, Lomas M, Rademacher TT, Pavlick R, Schaphoff S, Vuichard N, Warszwaski L, Yokohata T (2014) Quantifying uncertainties in soil carbon responses to changes in global mean temperature and precipitation. Earth System Dyn 5:197–209. doi:10.5194/esd-5-197-2014
Noda H, Motohka T, Murakami K, Muraoka H, Nasahara KN (2014) Reflectance and transmittance spectra of leaves and shoots of 22 vascular plant species and reflectance spectra of trunks and branches of 12 tree species in Japan. Ecol Res 29:111. doi:10.1007/s11284-013-1096-z
Noh NJ, Kuribayashi M, Saitoh TM, Inoue T, Muraoka H (2013) Response of belowground carbon fluxes to experimental soil warming in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest of Takayama. In: Proceedings of the synthesis workshop on the carbon budget and forest ecosystem in the Asian monitoring network. pp 76
Odum EP (1969) The strategy of ecosystem development. Science 164:262–270
Ohtsuka T, Akiyama T, Hashimoto Y, Inatomi M, Sakai A, Jia S, Mo W, Tsuda S, Koizumi H (2005) Biometric based estimates of net primary production (NPP) in a cool-temperate deciduous forest stand beneath a flux tower. Agr For Meteorol 134:27–38
Ohtsuka T, Saigusa N, Koizumi H (2009) On linking multiyear biometric measurements of tree growth with eddy covariance-based net ecosystem production. Global Change Biol 15:1015–1024. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01800.x
Ohtsuka T, Shizu Y, Hirota M, Yashiro Y, Shugang J, Iimura Y, Koizumi H (2014) Role of coarse woody debris in the carbon cycle of Takayama forest, central Japan. Ecol Res 29:91–101. doi:10.1007/s11284-013-1102-5
Oikawa T (1985) Simulation of forest carbon dynamics based on dry-matter production model: 1. Fundamental model structure of a tropical rainforest ecosystem. Bot Mag 98:225–238
Oleson KW, Niu GY, Yang ZL, Lawrence DM, Thornton PE, Lawrence PJ, Stöckli R, Dickinson RE, Bonan GB, Levis S, Dai A, Qian T (2008) Improvements to the community land model and their impact on the hydrological cycle. J Geophys Res 113:G01021. doi:10.1029/2007JG000563
Olson JS (1963) Energy storage and the balance of producers and decomposers in ecological systems. Ecol 44:322–331
Potithep S, Yasuoka Y (2011) Application of the 3-PG model for gross primary productivity estimation in deciduous broadleaf forests: a study area in Japan. Forests 2:590–609. doi:10.3390/f2020590
Potter CS, Randerson JT, Field CB, Matson PA, Vitousek PM, Mooney HA, Klooster SA (1993) Terrestrial ecosystem production: a process model based on global satellite and surface data. Global Biogeochem Cycles 7:811–841
Richardson AD, Black TA, Ciais P, Delbart N, Friedl MA, Gobron N, Hollinger DY, Kutsch WL, Longdoz B, Luyssaert S, Migliavacca M, Montagnani L, Munger JW, Moors E, Piao S, Rebmann C, Reichstein M, Saigusa N, Tomelleri E, Vargas R, Varlagin A (2010) Influence of spring and autumn phenological transitions on forest ecosystem productivity. Phil Trans Royal Soc B365:3227–3246. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0102
Saigusa N, Yamamoto S, Murayama S, Kondo H, Nishimura N (2002) Gross primary production and net ecosystem exchange of a cool-temperate deciduous forest estimated by the eddy covariance method. Agr For Meteorol 112:203–215
Saigusa N, Ichii K, Murakami H, Hirata R, Asanuma J, Den H, Han SJ, Ide R, Li SG, Ohta T, Sasai T, Wang SQ, Yu GR (2010) Impact of meteorological anomalies in the 2003 summer of gross primary productivity in East Asia. Biogeosci 7:641–655
Saitoh TM, Nagai S, Noda HM, Muraoka H, Nasahara KN (2012a) Examination of the extinction coefficient in the Beer–Lambert law for an accurate estimation of the forest canopy leaf area index. Forest Sci Tech 8:67–76. doi:10.1080/21580103.2012.673744
Saitoh TM, Nagai S, Saigusa N, Kobayashi H, Suzuki R, Nasahara KN, Muraoka H (2012b) Assessing the use of camera-based indices for characterizing canopy phenology in relation to gross primary production in a deciduous broad-leaved and an evergreen coniferous forest in Japan. Ecol Inform 11:45–54. doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2012.05.001
Saitoh TM, Nagai S, Yoshino J, Muraoka H, Saigusa N, Tamagawa I (2012c) Functional consequences of differences in canopy phenology for the carbon budget of two cool-temperate forest types: simulations using the NCAR/LSM model and validation using tower flux and biometric data. Eur J For Res 15:19–30
Sakai T, Akiyama T (2005) Quantifying the spatio-temporal variability of net primary production of the understory species, Sasa senanensis, using multipoint measuring techniques. Agr For Meteorol 134:60–69
Sakai T, Akiyama T, Saigusa N, Yamamoto S, Yasuoka Y (2006) The contribution of gross primary production of understory dwarf bamboo, Sasa senanensis, in a cool-temperate deciduous broadleaved forest in central Japan. For Ecol Manage 236:259–267. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.09.022
Sasai T, Okamoto K, Hiyama T, Yamaguchi Y (2007) Comparing terrestrial carbon fluxes from the scale of a flux tower to the global scale. Ecol Model 208:135–144. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.05.014
Sasai T, Saigusa N, Nishida K, Ito A, Hashimoto H, Nemani R, Hirata R, Ichii K, Takagi K, Saitoh TM, Ohta T, Murakami K, Yamaguchi Y, Oikawa T (2011) Satellite-driven estimation of terrestrial carbon flux over Far East Asia with 1-km grid resolution. Rem Sens Environ 115:1758–1771. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2011.03.007
Satomura T, Hashimoto Y, Koizumi H, Nakane K, Horikoshi T (2006) Seasonal patterns of fine root demography in a cool-temperate deciduous forest in central Japan. Ecol Res 21:741–753
Sitch S, Smith B, Prentice IC, Arneth A, Bondeau A, Cramer W, Kaplan JO, Levis S, Lucht W, Sykes MT, Thonicke K, Venevsky S (2003) Evaluation of ecosystem dynamics, plant geography and terrestrial carbon cycling in the LPJ dynamic global vegetation model. Global Change Biol 9:161–185
Thornton PE, Law BE, Gholz HL, Clark KL, Falge E, Ellsworth DS, Goldstein AH, Monson RK, Hollinger D, Falk M, Chen J, Sparks JP (2002) Modeling and measuring the effects of disturbance history and climate on carbon and water budgets in evergreen needleleaf forests. Agr For Meteorol 113:185–222
Yamaji T, Sakai T, Endo T, Baruah PJ, Akiyama T, Saigusa N, Nakai Y, Kitamura K, Ishizuka M, Yasuoka Y (2008) Scaling-up technique for net ecosystem productivity of deciduous broadleaved forests in Japan using MODIS data. Ecol Res 23:765–775
Yamamoto S, Koizumi H (2005) Long-term carbon exchange at Takayama site, a cool-temperate deciduous forest in Japan. Agr For Meteorol 134:1–3
Yamamoto S, Murayama S, Saigusa N, Kondo H (1999) Seasonal and inter-annual variability of CO2 flux between a temperate forest and the atmosphere in Japan. Tellus 51B:402–413
Yonemura S, Yokozawa M, Sakurai G, Kishimoto-Mo A, Lee N, Murayama S, Ishijima K, Shirato Y, Koizumi H (2013) Vertical soil–air CO2 dynamics at the Takayama deciduous broadleaved forest AsiaFlux site. J For Res 18:49–59. doi:10.1007/s10310-012-0385-7
Zobitz JM, Moore DJP, Quaife T, Braswell BH, Bergeson A, Anthony JA, Monson RK (2014) Joint data assimilation of satellite reflectance and net ecosystem exchange data constraints ecosystem carbon fluxes at a high-elevation subalpine forest. Agr For Meteorol 195–196:73–88. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.04.011
Acknowledgments
A Grant-in-Aid from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (no. 26281014) supported this study. Dr. Kazuhito Ichii (Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology) provided the model intercomparison results. The present authors thank all site founders, collaborators, and data managers working at the Takayama site.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
About this article
Cite this article
Ito, A., Saitoh, T.M. & Sasai, T. Synergies between observational and modeling studies at the Takayama site: toward a better understanding of processes in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecol Res 30, 201–210 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-014-1205-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-014-1205-7