Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Micro language planning and cultural renaissance in Botswana

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Language Policy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Many African countries exhibit complex patterns of language use because of linguistic pluralism. The situation is often compounded by the presence of at least one foreign language that is either the official or second language. The language situation in Botswana depicts this complex pattern. Out of the 26 languages spoken in the country, including Afrikaans, a language with European roots, only two, English and Setswana, dominate the public domain; the former is the official language, the language of government, business, media and international diplomacy, while the latter is the national language, the language of instruction in Standard 1, an alternative medium of communication in Parliament, the language of deliberations in Ntlo ya Dikgosi (House of Chiefs) and the language of the media for some specific programmes. The other 23 indigenous languages are relegated to local or tribal use, resulting in a pattern of language use which depicts an “imperfect triglossia” (Batibo in English language and literature: cross-cultural currents. Cambridge Scholars, New Castle upon Tyne, 2008: 18). Also, the problem of overlaps in the functions of English and Setswana has generated the concern that the roles of these minority languages in the family and immediate community domains are gradually being eroded. There are concerted efforts, through cultural renaissance on the part of many community groups, to preserve their languages. Such instances of cultural reawakening are discussed as types of micro language planning. Using the examples of two cultural groups, Kamanakao Association (KA) and the Society for the Promotion of Ikalanga Language (SPIL), the paper argues that the non-recognition of the need to develop and support the use of Botswana’s minority languages beyond the home domain is a major reason for the resurgence of cultural associations functioning as local language advocacy groups. The paper also contends that these associations have become extremely effective in influencing language policy makers to begin to acknowledge and celebrate Botswana’s linguistic and cultural diversity as national assets. The change is indicative of the fact that the linguistic terrain is gradually shifting, a situation which might herald the emergence of an inclusive language policy that harnesses both macro and micro level language planning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adegbija, E. (2001). Saving threatened languages in Africa: A case study of Oko. In J. A. Fishman (Ed.), Can threatened languages be saved? reversing language shift revisited: A 21st century perspective (pp. 284–308). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adegbija, E. (2003). Central language issues in literacy and basic education: Three mother tongue education experiments in Nigeria. In A. Ouane (Ed.), Towards a multilingual culture of education (pp. 167–181). Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldauf, R. B., Jr. (2006). Rearticulating the case for micro language planning in a language ecology context. Current Issues in Language Planning, 7(2-3), 147–170. doi:10.2167/cilp092.0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batibo, H. M. (1997). Double allegiance between nationalism and western modernization in language choice: The case of Botswana and Tanzania. In M. Pütz (Ed.), Language choices: Conditions, constraints and consequences (pp. 195–206). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Batibo, H. M. (2008). Anglicization or tswanalization: Which way Botswana? In M. M. Bagwasi, M. M. Alimi, & P. Ebewo (Eds.), English language and literature: Cross-cultural currents (pp. 15–26). New Castle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batibo, H. M., Mathangwane, J. T., & Tsonope, J. (2003). A study of the third language teaching in Botswana: An unpublished consultancy report submitted to the department of curriculum development and evaluation. Gaborone: Ministry of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botswana Guardian, August 17, 2012. A return to Domboshaba.

  • Brown, T. (1985). Ireland: A social and cultural history, 1922–1985. London: Fontana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chebanne, A., & Mathangwane, J. T. (2013). Kalanga Cuisine: Zwinojiwa Ne Zwinong’Wiwa Zwe Chikalanga. Gaborone: The Botswana Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chebanne, A., & Nthapelelang, M. R. (2000). A sociolinguistic survey of the Eastern Khoe in the Boteti and Makgadikgadi Pans areas of Botswana. In H. M. Batibo & B. Smieja (Eds.), Botswana: The future of minority languages (pp. 79–94). Frankfurt & Main: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chebanne, A. & Nyati-Ramahobo, L. (2003). Language knowledge and language use in Botswana. In Proceedings of the CSO: 2001 Population and Housing Census Dissemination Seminar (pp. 284–297). Gaborone.

  • Chebanne, A. & Nyati-Ramahobo, L. (2003–2004). The development of minority languages for adult literacy in Botswana: Towards cultural diversity. In Southern Africa review of education (SARE) with education with production (EWP) (Vols. 9–10, pp. 75–93).

  • Chebanne, A., & Schmidt, D. (2010). Kalanga: Summary grammar. Cape Town: The Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society (CASAS).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chua, C. S. K. (2006). Singaporean educational planning: Moving from the macro to the micro. Current Issues in Language Planning, 7(2-3), 214–228. doi:10.2167/cilp095.0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dagut, M. (1985). The revival of Hebrew and language planning. In J. Douglas Woods (Ed.), Language standards and their codification: Processes and application (pp. 65–75). Exeter: University of Exeter Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dementi-Leonard, B., & Gilmore, P. (1999). Language revitalization and identity in social context: A community-based Athabascan language preservation project in Western Interior Alaska. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 3(1), 37–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glinert, L. (1991). The back to the future syndrome in language planning: The case of modern Hebrew. In D. F. Marshall (Ed.), Language planning: Focusschrift in honour of Joshua A. Fishman (pp. 215–243). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Government of Botswana. (1966). Constitution of the Republic of Botswana. Accessed August 25, 2012, http://www.chr.up.ac.za/undp/domestic/docs/c_Botswana.pdf

  • Government of Botswana. (1977). Education for Kagisano: Report of the National Commission on Education. Gaborone: Government Printer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Government of Botswana. (1993). The Report of the National Commission on Education. Gaborone: Government Printer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Government of Botswana. (1994). The Revised National Policy on Education. Accessed August 25, 2012, http://www.moe.gov.

  • Janson, T., & Tsonope, J. (1991). Birth of a national language: The history of Setswana. Gaborone: Heinemann Botswana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamanakao Association. Accessed July 20, 2012, http://kamanakao.tripod.com.

  • Kaplan, R. B., & Baldauf, R. B, Jr. (1997). Language planning from practice to theory. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mac Giolla Chriost, D. (2006). Micro-level language planning in Ireland. Current Issues in Language Planning, 7(2-3), 230–250. doi:10.2167/cilp096.0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maruatona, T. (2008). Teaching English in Botswana: Dancing between cultural capital and diminishing returns. In M. M. Bagwasi, M. M. Alimi, & P. Ebewo (Eds.), English language and literature: Cross-cultural currents (pp. 164–171). New Castle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathangwane, J. T. (2008). English in Botswana: A blessing or a curse. In M. M. Bagwasi, M. M. Alimi, & P. Ebewo (Eds.), English language and literature: Cross-cultural currents (pp. 27–37). New Castle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, S. (2005). Language rights: Moving the debate forward. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9(3), 319–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Youth, Sport and Culture. Accessed August 17, 2013, www.mysc.gov.bw

  • Mmegi, February 2, 2007. English ‘spoils’ Ntlo ya Dikgosi opening.

  • Mooko, T. (2006). Counteracting the threat of language death: The case of minority languages in Botswana. Journal of Multicultural and Multilingual Development, 27(2), 109–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morton, F., Ramsay, J., & Mgadla, P. T. (2008). Historical dictionary of Botswana. Plymouth, United Kingdom: Scarecow Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nahir, M. (1998). Micro language planning and the revival of Hebrew: a schematic framework. Language and Society, 27 (3), 335–357. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4168849

  • Nyati, L. (1989). The national language and education for democracy in Botswana. Paper presented at the education research symposium in SADCC Region, University of Botswana, August 7–11, 1989.

  • Nyati-Ramahobo, L. (2004). The language situation in Botswana. In R. B. Baldauf Jr. & R. B. Kaplan (Eds.), Language planning and policy: Africa (Vol. 1, pp. 21–78). Clevendon: Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa Multilingual Matters.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nyati-Ramahobo, L. (2006). Language policy, cultural rights and the law in Botswana. In M. Pütz, J. A. Fishman, & A. Neff-van Aertselaer (Eds.), Along the routes to power: Explorations of empowerment through language (pp. 285–304). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nyati-Ramahobo, L. (2009). Language development for literacy: The case of Shiyeyi in Botswana. Literacy online: Papers from the Africa Regional Literacy Forum. Accessed August 18, 2013, http://literacy.org/products/ili/webdocs/ramahobo.html.

  • Nyati-Saleshando, L. (2011). An advocacy project for multicultural education: The case of Shiyeyi language in Botswana. International Review of Education, 57, 557–582. doi:10.1007/s11159-011-9254-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omoniyi, T. (2007). Alternative contexts of language policy and planning in Sub-Saharan Africa. TESOL Quarterly, 14(3), 533–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Presidential Task Group on a long term vision for Botswana. Accessed August 25, 2012, http://www.vision2016.co.bw

  • Ramsay, J. (1998). The establishment and consolidation of the Bechuanaland Protectorate, 1870–1910. In W. A. Edge & M. H. Lekorwe (Eds.), Politics and society (pp. 62–98). Pretoria: J L van Schaik.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricento, T. (2000). Historical and theoretical perspectives in language policy and planning. Journal of Linguistics, 4(2), 196–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. Journal of the National Association of Bilingual Education, 8, 15–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Midweek Sun, March 3, 2011. Seyeyi is Botswana's most developed minority language. Accessed July 20, 2012, http://www.themidweeksun.co.bw/archives/2-default/1211-.html

  • Tsonope, J. (1995). Prospects for the indigenous languages of Botswana: Implications of the government white paper no 2 of 1994. Mosenodi: Journal of the Botswana Education Research Association, 3(1, 2), 5–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. (2014). 2014 Theme: Local languages for global citizenship: spotlight on science. Accessed November 27, 2014, http://www.un.org/en/events/motherlanguageday

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of English, University of Botswana, P/B 0022, Gaborone, Botswana

    Modupe M. Alimi

Authors
  1. Modupe M. Alimi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Modupe M. Alimi.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Alimi, M.M. Micro language planning and cultural renaissance in Botswana. Lang Policy 15, 49–69 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-014-9351-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-014-9351-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation