Abstract
Water-dispersed bacterial cellulose nanofibers were prepared via an oxidation reaction using 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidine-N-oxy radical (TEMPO) as a catalyst. It was found that TEMPO-oxidized bacterial cellulose nanofibers (TOCNs) synthesized via sodium bromide-free methods are similar to those synthesized using sodium bromide. The TOCNs retained their unique structure in water as well as in emulsion. TOCNs adhere to the skin surface while maintaining nanofibrous structures, providing inherent functions of bacterial cellulose, such as high tensile strength, high water-holding capacity, and blockage of harmful substances. When gelatin gels as model skin were coated with TOCNs, the hardness representing the elasticity was increased by 20% compared to untreated gelatin gel because TOCNs could tightly hold the gelatin structure. When porcine skin was treated with TOCNs, carboxymethyl cellulose, and hydroxyethyl cellulose, the initial water contact angles were 26.5°, 76.5°, and 64.1°, respectively. The contact angle of TOCNs dramatically decreased over time as water penetrated the fibrous structure of the TOCN film. When observed by scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy, TOCNs on the skin surface provided physical gaps between particles and the skin, blocking the adsorption of particulate matter to the skin surface. On the contrary, the structure of water-soluble polymers was disrupted by an external environment, such as water, so that particulate matter directly attached to the skin surface. Characterization of TOCNs on the skin surface offered insight into the function of nanofibers on the skin, which is important for their applications with respect to the skin and biomedical research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Bragd PL, Besemer AC, Van Bekkum H (2000) Bromide-free TEMPO-mediated oxidation of primary alcohol groups in starch and methyl alpha-d-glucopyranoside. Carbohydr Res 328:355–363. doi:10.1016/S0008-6215(00)00109-9
Choi YS, Hong SR, Lee YM et al (1999) Study on gelatin-containing artificial skin: I. Preparation and characteristics of novel gelatin–alginate sponge. Biomaterials 20:409–417. doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(98)00180-X
Czaja W, Krystynowicz A, Bielecki S, Brown RM (2006) Microbial cellulose—the natural power to heal wounds. Biomaterials 27:145–151. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.07.035
de Carvalho RA, Veronese G, Carvalho AJF et al (2016) The potential of TEMPO-oxidized nanofibrillar cellulose beads for cell delivery applications. Cellulose 23:3399–3405. doi:10.1007/s10570-016-1063-2
Evans BR, O’Neill HM, Malyvanh VP et al (2003) Palladium-bacterial cellulose membranes for fuel cells. Biosens Bioelectron 18:917–923. doi:10.1016/S0956-5663(02)00212-9
Fontana JD, De Souza AM, Fontana CK et al (1990) Acetobacter cellulose pellicle as a temporary skin substitute. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 24–25:253–264. doi:10.1007/BF02920250
Fu L, Zhang J, Yang G (2013) Present status and applications of bacterial cellulose-based materials for skin tissue repair. Carbohydr Polym 92:1432–1442. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.10.071
Kalia S, Boufi S, Celli A, Kango S (2014) Nanofibrillated cellulose: surface modification and potential applications. Colloid Polym Sci 292:5–31. doi:10.1007/s00396-013-3112-9
Klemm D, Heublein B, Fink H, Bohn A (2005) Polymer science cellulose: fascinating biopolymer and sustainable raw material. Angew Chem Int Ed 44:3358–3393. doi:10.1002/anie.200460587
Lee J, Deng F, Yeomans WG et al (2001) Direct incorporation of glucosamine and N-Acetylglucosamine into Exopolymers by Gluconacetobacter xylinus (5Acetobacter xylinum) ATCC 10245: production of chitosan–cellulose and chitin–cellulose exopolymers. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3970–3975. doi:10.1128/AEM.67.9.3970
Lemoine S, Thomazeau C, Joannard D et al (2000) Sucrose tricarboxylate by sonocatalysed TEMPO-mediated oxidation. Carbohydr Res 326:176–184. doi:10.1016/S0008-6215(00)00046-X
Li Q, Xu Y, Wei H, Wang X (2016) An electrospun polycarbonate nanofibrous membrane for high efficiency particulate matter filtration. RSC Adv 6:65275–65281. doi:10.1039/C6RA12320A
Naritomi T, Kouda T, Yano H, Yoshinaga F (1998) Effect of lactate on bacterial cellulose production from fructose in continuous culture. J Ferment Bioeng 85:89–95. doi:10.1016/S0922-338X(97)80360-1
Perng C, Kao C, Yang Y et al (2007) Culturing adult human bone marrow stem cells on gelatin scaffold with pNIPAAm as transplanted grafts for skin regeneration. J Biomed Mater Res 84A:622–630. doi:10.1002/jbm.a.31291
Rahman MS, Al-mahrouqi AI (2009) Instrumental texture profile analysis of gelatin gel extracted from grouper skin and commercial (bovine and porcine) gelatin gels. Int J Food Sci Nutr 60:229–242. doi:10.1080/09637480902984414
Saito T, Isogai A (2004) TEMPO-mediated oxidation of native cellulose. The effect of oxidation conditions on chemical and crystal structures of the water-insoluble fractions. Biomacromol 5:1983–1989. doi:10.1021/bm0497769
Saito T, Nishiyama Y, Putaux JL et al (2006) Homogeneous suspensions of individualized microfibrils from TEMPO-catalyzed oxidation of native cellulose. Biomacromol 7:1687–1691. doi:10.1021/bm060154s
Saito T, Kimura S, Nishiyama Y, Isogai A (2007) Cellulose nanofibers prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation of native cellulose. Biomacromol 8:2485–2491. doi:10.1021/bm0703970
Shah J, Brown RM (2005) Towards electronic paper displays made from microbial cellulose. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 66:352–355
Song E, Ahn Y, Ahn J et al (2015) Optical clearing assisted confocal microscopy of ex vivo transgenic mouse skin. Opt Laser Technol 73:69–76. doi:10.1016/j.optlastec.2015.03.020
Spaic M, Small DP, Cook JR (2014) Characterization of anionic and cationic functionalized bacterial cellulose nanofibres for controlled release applications. Cellulose 21:1529–1540. doi:10.1007/s10570-014-0174-x
Svensson A, Nicklasson E, Harrah T et al (2005) Bacterial cellulose as a potential scaffold for tissue engineering of cartilage. Biomaterials 26:419–431. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.02.049
Tahara N, Tabuchi M, Watanabe K et al (1997) Degree of polymerization of cellulose from acetobacter xylinum BPR2001 decreased by cellulase produced by the strain. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 61:1862–1865. doi:10.1271/bbb.61.1862
Tarrés Q, Delgado-Aguilar M, Pèlach MA et al (2016a) Remarkable increase of paper strength by combining enzymatic cellulose nanofibers in bulk and TEMPO-oxidized nanofibers as coating. Cellulose 23:3939–3950. doi:10.1007/s10570-016-1073-0
Tarrés Q, Oliver-Ortega H, Llop M et al (2016b) Effective and simple methodology to produce nanocellulose-based aerogels for selective oil removal. Cellulose 23:3077–3088. doi:10.1007/s10570-016-1017-8
Wang N, Yang Y, Al-Deyab SS et al (2015) Ultra-light 3D nanofibre-nets binary structured nylon 6-polyacrylonitrile membranes for efficient filtration of fine particulate matter. J Mater Chem a 3:23946–23954. doi:10.1039/c5ta06543g
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jun, SH., Lee, SH., Kim, S. et al. Physical properties of TEMPO-oxidized bacterial cellulose nanofibers on the skin surface. Cellulose 24, 5267–5274 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-017-1508-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-017-1508-2