Abstract
Context: Arterial hypertension (AHT) is one of the most frequent pathologies in the general population. Subtypes of essential hypertension characterized by low-renin levels allowed the identification of two different clinical entities: aldosterone-mediated mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) activation and cortisol-mediated MR activation. The spectrum of cortisol-mediated MR activation includes the classic apparent mineralocorticoid excess (AME) to milder (nonclassic, NC) forms of AME, the latter with a much higher prevalence than classic AME but different phenotype and genotype. AME is a rare autosomal recessive disorder caused by the presence of a severe deficiency of 11βHSD2 activity, mainly due to a multiple pathogenic variant in the HSD11B2 gene. The clinical features are childhood onset hypertension, hypokalemia, and alkalosis with low plasma renin, but unlike primary aldosteronism (PA), AME displays low aldosterone levels in the presence of a high serum or urinary cortisol/cortisone (F/E) ratio. NC-AME is mainly related to partial 11βHSD2 deficiency associated with genetic variations and epigenetic modifications (first hit) and potential additive actions of endogenous or exogenous inhibitors (i.e., glycyrrhetinic acid-like factors (GALFS)) and other factors (i.e., age, high sodium intake) (second hit). Subjects with NC-AME are characterized by high F/E ratio and low E levels, normal and elevated blood pressure, low-renin and increased urinary potassium excretion and microalbuminuria. Subjects with the AME condition should benefit with low-sodium diet, potassium supplementation and monotherapy with MR antagonists.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abdellatif M. The role of microRNA-133 in cardiac hypertrophy uncovered. Circ Res. 2010;106:16–8.
Adlin EV, Braitman LE, Vasan RS. Bimodal aldosterone distribution in low-renin hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2013;26:1076–85.
Alikhani-Koopaei R, Fouladkou F, Frey FJ, Frey BM. Epigenetic regulation of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 expression. J Clin Invest. 2004;114:1146–57.
Alikhani-Koupaei R, Fouladkou F, Fustier P, et al. Identification of polymorphisms in the human 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 gene promoter: functional characterization and relevance for salt sensitivity. FASEB J. 2007;21:3618–28.
Angelini A, Li Z, Mericskay M, Decaux JF. Regulation of connective tissue growth factor and cardiac fibrosis by an SRF/microRNA-133a axis. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0139858.
Arriza JL, Weinberger C, Cerelli G, et al. Cloning of human mineralocorticoid receptor complementary DNA: structural and functional kinship with the glucocorticoid receptor. Science. 1987;237:268–75.
Arriza JL, Simerly RB, Swanson LW, Evans RM. The neuronal mineralocorticoid receptor as a mediator of glucocorticoid response. Neuron. 1988;1:887–900.
Atanasov AG, Ignatova ID, Nashev LG, et al. Impaired protein stability of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2: a novel mechanism of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18:1262–70.
Athimulam S, Lazik N, Bancos I. Low-renin hypertension. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am. 2019;48:701–15.
Azizi M, Rossignol P, Hulot JS. Emerging drug classes and their potential use in hypertension. Hypertension. 2019;74:1075–83.
Baek D, Villen J, Shin C, Camargo FD, Gygi SP, Bartel DP. The impact of microRNAs on protein output. Nature. 2008;455:64–71.
Bailey MA, Craigie E, Livingstone DEW, et al. Hsd11b2 haploinsufficiency in mice causes salt sensitivity of blood pressure. Hypertension. 2011;57:515–20.
Baker MA, Wang F, Liu Y, et al. MiR-192-5p in the kidney protects against the development of hypertension. Hypertension. 2019;73:399–406.
Bakhiya N, Monien B, Frank H, Seidel A, Glatt H. Renal organic anion transporters OAT1 and OAT3 mediate the cellular accumulation of 5-sulfooxymethylfurfural, a reactive, nephrotoxic metabolite of the Maillard product 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Biochem Pharmacol. 2009;78:414–9.
Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Anker SD, et al. Effect of finerenone on chronic kidney disease outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2020;383:2219–29.
Ball JP, Syed M, Maranon RO, et al. Role and regulation of microRNAs in aldosterone-mediated cardiac injury and dysfunction in male rats. Endocrinology. 2017;158:1859–74.
Barros ER, Carvajal CA. Urinary exosomes and their cargo: potential biomarkers for mineralocorticoid arterial hypertension? Front Endocrinol. 2017;8:230.
Bartel DP. MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function. Cell. 2004;116:281–97.
Batkai S, Thum T. MicroRNAs in hypertension: mechanisms and therapeutic targets. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2012;14:79–87.
Baudrand R, Vaidya A. The low-renin hypertension phenotype: genetics and the role of the mineralocorticoid receptor. Int J Mol Sci. 2018a;19:pii: E546.
Baudrand R, Vaidya A. The low-renin hypertension phenotype: genetics and the role of the mineralocorticoid receptor. Int J Mol Sci. 2018b;19:546.
Baudrand R, Guarda FJ, Fardella C, et al. Continuum of renin-independent aldosteronism in normotension. Hypertension. 2017;69:950–6.
Berk BC, Fujiwara K, Lehoux S. ECM remodeling in hypertensive heart disease. J Clin Invest. 2007;117:568–75.
Best R, Walker BR. Additional value of measurement of urinary cortisone and unconjugated cortisol metabolites in assessing the activity of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in vivo. Clin Endocrinol. 1997;47:231–6.
Bokkenheuser VD, Winter J, Honour JW, Shackleton CH. Reduction of aldosterone by anaerobic bacteria: origin of urinary 21-deoxy metabolites in man. J Steroid Biochem. 1979;11:1145–9.
Botero-Velez M, Curtis JJ, Warnock DG. Brief report. Liddle’s syndrome revisited – a disorder of sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:178–81.
Brand E, Kato N, Chatelain N, et al. Structural analysis and evaluation of the 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11beta-HSD2) gene in human essential hypertension. J Hypertens. 1998;16:1627–33.
Brown JM, Robinson-Cohen C, Luque-Fernandez MA, et al. The spectrum of subclinical primary aldosteronism and incident hypertension: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2017;167:630–41.
Butterworth MB. MicroRNAs and the regulation of aldosterone signaling in the kidney. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2015;308:C521–7.
Cabreiro F, Picot CR, Friguet B, Petropoulos I. Methionine sulfoxide reductases: relevance to aging and protection against oxidative stress. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1067:37–44.
Campino C, Carvajal CA, Cornejo J, et al. 11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type-2 and type-1 (11beta-HSD2 and 11beta-HSD1) and 5beta-reductase activities in the pathogenia of essential hypertension. Endocrine. 2010;37:106–14.
Campino C, Quinteros H, Owen GI, et al. 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 polymorphisms and activity in a Chilean essential hypertensive and normotensive cohort. Am J Hypertens. 2012;25:597–603.
Campino C, Martinez-Aguayo A, Baudrand R, et al. Age-related changes in 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 activity in normotensive subjects. Am J Hypertens. 2013;26:481–7.
Camussi G, Deregibus MC, Bruno S, Grange C, Fonsato V, Tetta C. Exosome/microvesicle-mediated epigenetic reprogramming of cells. Am J Cancer Res. 2011;1:98–110.
Canessa CM, Schild L, Buell G, et al. Amiloride-sensitive epithelial Na+ channel is made of three homologous subunits. Nature. 1994;367:463–7.
Carvajal CA, Gonzalez AA, Romero DG, et al. Two homozygous mutations in the 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 gene in a case of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:2501–7.
Carvajal CA, Herrada AA, Castillo CR, et al. Primary aldosteronism can alter peripheral levels of transforming growth factor beta and tumor necrosis factor alpha. J Endocrinol Invest. 2009;32:759–65.
Carvajal CA, Tapia-Castillo A, Valdivia CP, et al. Serum cortisol and cortisone as potential biomarkers of partial 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 deficiency. Am J Hypertens. 2018a;31:910–8.
Carvajal CA, Tapia-Castillo A, Valdivia CP, et al. Serum cortisol and cortisone as potential biomarkers of partial 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type-2 deficiency. Am J Hypertens. 2018b;31:hpy051.
Carvajal CA, Tapia-Castillo A, Vecchiola A, Baudrand R, Fardella CE. Classic and nonclassic apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;105:dgz315.
Castoldi G, Di Gioia CR, Bombardi C, et al. MiR-133a regulates collagen 1A1: potential role of miR-133a in myocardial fibrosis in angiotensin II-dependent hypertension. J Cell Physiol. 2012;227:850–6.
Charmandari E, Kino T. Novel causes of generalized glucocorticoid resistance. Horm Metab Res. 2007;39:445–50.
Chen C, Lu C, Qian Y, et al. Urinary miR-21 as a potential biomarker of hypertensive kidney injury and fibrosis. Sci Rep. 2017;7:17737.
Cheng Y, Zeng Q, Han Q, Xia W. Effect of pH, temperature and freezing-thawing on quantity changes and cellular uptake of exosomes. Protein Cell. 2019;10:295–9.
Chin HJ, Song YR, Kim HS, et al. The bilirubin level is negatively correlated with the incidence of hypertension in normotensive Korean population. J Korean Med Sci. 2009;24(Suppl):S50–6.
Collaboration NCDRF. Worldwide trends in blood pressure from 1975 to 2015: a pooled analysis of 1479 population-based measurement studies with 19.1 million participants. Lancet. 2017;389:37–55.
Connell JM, MacKenzie SM, Freel EM, Fraser R, Davies E. A lifetime of aldosterone excess: long-term consequences of altered regulation of aldosterone production for cardiovascular function. Endocr Rev. 2008;29:133–54.
Cortes P, Fardella C, Oestreicher E, et al. Evidences for mineralocorticoid excess in essential hypertension. Rev Med Chile. 2000;128:955–61.
Courboulin A, Paulin R, Giguere NJ, et al. Role for miR-204 in human pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Exp Med. 2011;208:535–48.
Craigie E, Evans LC, Mullins JJ, Bailey MA. Failure to downregulate the epithelial sodium channel causes salt sensitivity in Hsd11b2 heterozygote mice. Hypertension. 2012;60:684–90.
Danaei G, Finucane MM, Lin JK, et al. National, regional, and global trends in systolic blood pressure since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 786 country-years and 5.4 million participants. Lancet. 2011;377:568–77.
Das S, Halushka MK. Extracellular vesicle microRNA transfer in cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Pathol. 2015;24:199–206.
Deuchar GA, McLean D, Hadoke PWF, et al. 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 deficiency accelerates atherogenesis and causes proinflammatory changes in the endothelium in apoe−/− mice. Endocrinology. 2011;152:236–46.
Djousse L, Levy D, Cupples LA, Evans JC, D’Agostino RB, Ellison RC. Total serum bilirubin and risk of cardiovascular disease in the Framingham offspring study. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87:1196–200. (A4, 7)
Dostanic I, Paul RJ, Lorenz JN, Theriault S, Van Huysse JW, Lingrel JB. The alpha2-isoform of Na-K-ATPase mediates ouabain-induced hypertension in mice and increased vascular contractility in vitro. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005;288:H477–85.
Egan BMZY, Axon RN, Egan BM, Zhao Y, Axon RN. US trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension, 1988–2008. JAMA. 2010;303:2043–50.
Elvira-Matelot E, Zhou XO, Farman N, et al. Regulation of WNK1 expression by miR-192 and aldosterone. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;21:1724–31.
Engeli S, Bohnke J, Gorzelniak K, et al. Weight loss and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Hypertension. 2005;45:356–62.
Evans LC, Ivy JR, Wyrwoll C, et al. Conditional deletion of Hsd11b2 in the brain causes salt appetite and hypertension. Circulation. 2016;133:1360–70.
Fardella CE, Mosso L, Gomez-Sanchez C, et al. Primary hyperaldosteronism in essential hypertensives: prevalence, biochemical profile, and molecular biology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:1863–7.
Feraille E, Mordasini D, Gonin S, et al. Mechanism of control of Na,K-ATPase in principal cells of the mammalian collecting duct. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;986:570–8.
Fernandes-Rosa FL, Daniil G, Orozco IJ, et al. A gain-of-function mutation in the CLCN2 chloride channel gene causes primary aldosteronism. Nat Genet. 2018;50:355–61.
Ferrari P, Lovati E, Frey FJ. The role of the 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in human hypertension. J Hypertens. 2000;18:241–8.
Ferrari P, Sansonnens A, Dick B, Frey FJ. In vivo 11beta-HSD-2 activity: variability, salt-sensitivity, and effect of licorice. Hypertension. 2001;38:1330–6.
Flamant M, Placier S, Dubroca C, et al. Role of matrix metalloproteinases in early hypertensive vascular remodeling. Hypertension. 2007;50:212–8.
French KC, Antonyak MA, Cerione RA. Extracellular vesicle docking at the cellular port: extracellular vesicle binding and uptake. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2017;67:48–55.
Friso S, Pizzolo F, Choi SW, et al. Epigenetic control of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2 gene promoter is related to human hypertension. Atherosclerosis. 2008;199:323–7.
Friso S, Carvajal CA, Fardella CE, Olivieri O. Epigenetics and arterial hypertension: the challenge of emerging evidence. Transl Res. 2015;165:154–65.
Funder JW. Is aldosterone bad for the heart? Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2004;15:139–42.
Funder JW. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists: emerging roles in cardiovascular medicine. Integr Blood Press Control. 2013;6:129–38.
Funder JW. Primary aldosteronism and salt. Pflügers Arch. 2015;467:587–94.
Funder JW. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2017a;165:151–3.
Funder JW. Aldosterone and mineralocorticoid receptors – physiology and pathophysiology. Int J Mol Sci. 2017b;18:1032.
Funder JW, Carey RM, Mantero F, et al. The management of primary aldosteronism: case detection, diagnosis, and treatment: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2016a;101:1889–916.
Funder JW, Carey RM, Mantero F, et al. The management of primary aldosteronism: case detection, diagnosis, and treatment: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016b;101:1889–916.
Ghazi L, Dudenbostel T, Hachem ME, et al. 11-Beta dehydrogenase type 2 activity is not reduced in treatment resistant hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2017;30:518–23.
Gilbert KC, Brown NJ. Aldosterone and inflammation. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2010;17:199–204.
Gomez-Sanchez EP. Mineralocorticoid receptors in the brain and cardiovascular regulation: minority rule? Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2011;22:179–87.
Gracia T, Wang X, Su Y, et al. Urinary exosomes contain microRNAs capable of paracrine modulation of tubular transporters in kidney. Sci Rep. 2017;7:40601.
Guzik TJ, Touyz RM. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and vascular aging in hypertension. Hypertension. 2017;70:660–7.
Handelsman DJ, Wartofsky L. Requirement for mass spectrometry sex steroid assays in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:3971–3.
Hannemann A, Wallaschofski H. Prevalence of primary aldosteronism in patient’s cohorts and in population-based studies – a review of the current literature. Horm Metab Res. 2012;44:157–62.
Henschkowski J, Stuck AE, Frey BM, et al. Age-dependent decrease in 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11beta-HSD2) activity in hypertensive patients. Am J Hypertens. 2008;21:644–9.
Herrada AA, Contreras FJ, Marini NP, et al. Aldosterone promotes autoimmune damage by enhancing Th17-mediated immunity. J Immunol. 2010;184:191–202.
Honour J. The possible involvement of intestinal bacteria in steroidal hypertension. Endocrinology. 1982;110:285–7.
Hundemer GL, Curhan GC, Yozamp N, Wang M, Vaidya A. Cardiometabolic outcomes and mortality in medically treated primary aldosteronism: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6:51–9.
James SJ, Melnyk S, Pogribna M, Pogribny IP, Caudill MA. Elevation in S-adenosylhomocysteine and DNA hypomethylation: potential epigenetic mechanism for homocysteine-related pathology. J Nutr. 2002;132:2361S–6S.
Jimenez-Canino R, Lorenzo-Diaz F, Odermatt A, et al. 11beta-HSD2 SUMOylation modulates cortisol-induced mineralocorticoid receptor nuclear translocation independently of effects on transactivation. Endocrinology. 2017;158:4047–63.
Kaplan JH. The sodium pump and hypertension: a physiological role for the cardiac glycoside binding site of the Na,K-ATPase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102:15723–4.
Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet. 2005;365:217–23.
Kolkhof P, Delbeck M, Kretschmer A, et al. Finerenone, a novel selective nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist protects from rat cardiorenal injury. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2014;64:69–78.
Kosicka K, Cymerys M, Majchrzak-Celinska A, Chuchracki M, Glowka FK. 11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in hypertension: comparison of phenotype and genotype analysis. J Hum Hypertens. 2013;27:510–5.
Koval SM, Snihurska IO, Yushko KO, et al. Circulating microRNA-133a in patients with arterial hypertension, hypertensive heart disease, and left ventricular diastolic dysfunction. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2020;7:104.
Krol J, Busskamp V, Markiewicz I, et al. Characterizing light-regulated retinal microRNAs reveals rapid turnover as a common property of neuronal microRNAs. Cell. 2010;141:618–31.
Krug AW, Ehrhart-Bornstein M. Adrenocortical dysfunction in obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Horm Metab Res. 2008;40:515–7.
Kumagai A, Yano S, Otomo M. Study on the corticoid-like action of glycyrrhizine and the mechanism of its action. Endocrinol Jpn. 1957;4:17–27.
Kunutsor SK, Bakker SJ, Gansevoort RT, Chowdhury R, Dullaart RP. Circulating total bilirubin and risk of incident cardiovascular disease in the general population. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2015;35:716–24.
Lana A, Alexander K, Castagna A, et al. Urinary metabolic signature of primary aldosteronism: gender and subtype-specific alterations. Proteomics Clin Appl. 2019;13:e1800049.
Latif SA, Conca TJ, Morris DJ. The effects of the licorice derivative, glycyrrhetinic acid, on hepatic 3alpha- and 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases and 5alpha- and 5beta-reductase pathways of metabolism of aldosterone in male rats. Steroids. 1990;55:52–8.
Latif SA, Sheff MF, Ribeiro CE, Morris DJ. Selective inhibition of sheep kidney 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoform 2 activity by 5alpha-reduced (but not 5beta) derivatives of adrenocorticosteroids. Steroids. 1997;62:230–7.
Lavall D, Schuster P, Jacobs N, Kazakov A, Bohm M, Laufs U. Rac1 GTPase regulates 11beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 and fibrotic remodeling. J Biol Chem. 2017;292:7542–53.
Lavery GG, Ronconi V, Draper N, et al. Late-onset apparent mineralocorticoid excess caused by novel compound heterozygous mutations in the HSD11B2 gene. Hypertension. 2003;42:123–9.
Leonard LJ, Townsend D, King RA. Function of dopachrome oxidoreductase and metal ions in dopachrome conversion in the eumelanin pathway. Biochemistry. 1988;27:6156–9.
Leroy V, De Seigneux S, Agassiz V, et al. Aldosterone activates NF-kappaB in the collecting duct. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20:131–44.
Li A, Li KX, Marui S, et al. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess in a Brazilian kindred: hypertension in the heterozygote state. J Hypertens. 1997;15:1397–402.
Li A, Tedde R, Krozowski ZS, et al. Molecular basis for hypertension in the “type II variant” of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Am J Hum Genet. 1998;63:370–9.
Lienhard D, Lauterburg M, Escher G, Frey FJ, Frey BM. High salt intake down-regulates colonic mineralocorticoid receptors, epithelial sodium channels and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2. PLoS One. 2012;7:e37898.
Lin X, Xu F, Cui RR, et al. Arterial calcification is regulated via an miR-204/DNMT3a regulatory circuit both in vitro and in female mice. Endocrinology. 2018;159:2905–16.
Loirand G, Pacaud P. Involvement of Rho GTPases and their regulators in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Small GTPases. 2014;5:1–10.
Lovati E, Ferrari P, Dick B, et al. Molecular basis of human salt sensitivity: the role of the 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:3745–9.
Ma X, Lian QQ, Dong Q, Ge RS. Environmental inhibitors of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2. Toxicology. 2011;285:83–9.
Ma F, Li Y, Jia L, et al. Macrophage-stimulated cardiac fibroblast production of IL-6 is essential for TGF beta/Smad activation and cardiac fibrosis induced by angiotensin II. PLoS One. 2012;7:e35144.
Ma X, Lu C, Lv C, Wu C, Wang Q. The expression of miR-192 and its significance in diabetic nephropathy patients with different urine albumin creatinine ratio. J Diabetes Res. 2016;2016:6789402.
Manning JR, Bailey MA, Soares DC, Dunbar DR, Mullins JJ. In silico structure-function analysis of pathological variation in the HSD11B2 gene sequence. Physiol Genomics. 2010;42:319–30.
Mantero F, Tedde R, Opocher G, Dessi Fulgheri P, Arnaldi G, Ulick S. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess type II. Steroids. 1994;59:80–3.
Marquez DF, Ruiz-Hurtado G, Segura J, Ruilope L. Microalbuminuria and cardiorenal risk: old and new evidence in different populations. F1000Res. 2019;8:1659.
Martinez ML, Lopes LF, Coelho EB, et al. Lercanidipine reduces matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity in patients with hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2006;47:117–22.
Martinez-Aguayo A, Fardella C. Genetics of hypertensive syndrome. Horm Res. 2009;71:253–9.
Martinez-Martinez E, Buonafine M, Boukhalfa I, et al. Aldosterone target NGAL (neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin) is involved in cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction through NFkappaB pathway. Hypertension. 2017;70:1148–56.
Matkovich SJ, Wang W, Tu Y, et al. MicroRNA-133a protects against myocardial fibrosis and modulates electrical repolarization without affecting hypertrophy in pressure-overloaded adult hearts. Circ Res. 2010;106:166–75.
McCurley A, Jaffe IZ. Mineralocorticoid receptors in vascular function and disease. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2012;350:256–65.
Michael A, Bajracharya SD, Yuen PS, et al. Exosomes from human saliva as a source of microRNA biomarkers. Oral Dis. 2010;16:34–8.
Milliez P, Girerd X, Plouin PF, Blacher J, Safar ME, Mourad JJ. Evidence for an increased rate of cardiovascular events in patients with primary aldosteronism. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1243–8.
Mills KT, Bundy JD, Kelly TN, et al. Global disparities of hypertension prevalence and control. Circulation. 2016;134:441–50.
Min X, Lee BH, Cobb MH, Goldsmith EJ. Crystal structure of the kinase domain of WNK1, a kinase that causes a hereditary form of hypertension. Structure. 2004;12:1303–11.
Mladinov D, Liu Y, Mattson DL, Liang M. MicroRNAs contribute to the maintenance of cell-type-specific physiological characteristics: miR-192 targets Na+/K+-ATPase beta1. Nucleic Acids Res. 2013;41:1273–83.
Monaghan PJ, Keevil BG, Stewart PM, Trainer PJ. Case for the wider adoption of mass spectrometry-based adrenal steroid testing, and beyond. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99:4434–7.
Monien BH, Engst W, Barknowitz G, Seidel A, Glatt H. Mutagenicity of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in V79 cells expressing human SULT1A1: identification and mass spectrometric quantification of DNA adducts formed. Chem Res Toxicol. 2012;25:1484–92.
Monticone S, Burrello J, Tizzani D, et al. Prevalence and clinical manifestations of primary aldosteronism encountered in primary care practice. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;69:1811–20.
Morineau G, Sulmont V, Salomon R, et al. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess: report of six new cases and extensive personal experience. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:3176–84.
Morris DJ, Semafuko WE, Latif SA, Vogel B, Grimes CA, Sheff MF. Detection of glycyrrhetinic acid-like factors (GALFs) in human urine. Hypertension. 1992;20:356–60.
Morris DJ, Latif SA, Hardy MP, Brem AS. Endogenous inhibitors (GALFs) of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms 1 and 2: derivatives of adrenally produced corticosterone and cortisol. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2007;104:161–8.
Mosso L, Fardella C, Montero J, et al. High prevalence of undiagnosed primary hyperaldosteronism among patients with essential hypertension. Rev Med Chile. 1999;127:800–6.
Mosso L, Carvajal C, Gonzalez A, et al. Primary aldosteronism and hypertensive disease. Hypertension. 2003;42:161–5.
Mulatero P, Stowasser M, Loh KC, et al. Increased diagnosis of primary aldosteronism, including surgically correctable forms, in centers from five continents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:1045–50.
Mulatero P, Monticone S, Rainey WE, Veglio F, Williams TA. Role of KCNJ5 in familial and sporadic primary aldosteronism. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2013;9:104–12.
Mune T, Rogerson FM, Nikkila H, Agarwal AK, White PC. Human hypertension caused by mutations in the kidney isozyme of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Nat Genet. 1995;10:394–9.
Muñoz-Durango N, Barake MF, Letelier NA, Campino C, Fardella CE, Kalergis AM. Immune system alterations by aldosterone during hypertension: from clinical observations to genomic and non-genomic mechanisms leading to vascular damage. Curr Mol Med. 2013;13:1035–46.
Nagase M, Fujita T. Role of Rac1-mineralocorticoid-receptor signalling in renal and cardiac disease. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2013;9:86–98.
New MI, Levine LS. Mineralocorticoid hypertension in childhood. Mayo Clin Proc. 1977;52:323–8.
New MI, Levine LS, Biglieri EG, Pareira J, Ulick S. Evidence for an unidentified steroid in a child with apparent mineralocorticoid hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1977;44:924–33.
O’Shaughnessy KM. Gordon syndrome: a continuing story. Pediatr Nephrol. 2015;30:1903–8.
Padmanabhan S, Caulfield M, Dominiczak AF. Genetic and molecular aspects of hypertension. Circ Res. 2015;116:937–59.
Palermo M, Shackleton CH, Mantero F, Stewart PM. Urinary free cortisone and the assessment of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in man. Clin Endocrinol. 1996;45:605–11.
Patti GJ, Yanes O, Siuzdak G. Innovation: metabolomics: the apogee of the omics trilogy. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2012;13:263–9.
Picot CR, Perichon M, Lundberg KC, Friguet B, Szweda LI, Petropoulos I. Alterations in mitochondrial and cytosolic methionine sulfoxide reductase activity during cardiac ischemia and reperfusion. Exp Gerontol. 2006;41:663–7.
Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:709–17.
Pizzolo F, Friso S, Morandini F, et al. Apparent mineralocorticoid excess by a novel mutation and epigenetic modulation by HSD11B2 promoter methylation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100:E1234–41.
Potus F, Graydon C, Provencher S, Bonnet S. Vascular remodeling process in pulmonary arterial hypertension, with focus on miR-204 and miR-126 (2013 Grover Conference series). Pulm Circ. 2014;4:175–84.
Rezaei M, Andrieu T, Neuenschwander S, et al. Regulation of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 by microRNA. Hypertension. 2014;64:860–6.
Romaine SP, Charchar FJ, Samani NJ, Tomaszewski M. Circulating microRNAs and hypertension – from new insights into blood pressure regulation to biomarkers of cardiovascular risk. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2016;27:1–7.
Romero DG, Plonczynski MW, Carvajal CA, Gomez-Sanchez EP, Gomez-Sanchez CE. Microribonucleic acid-21 increases aldosterone secretion and proliferation in H295R human adrenocortical cells. Endocrinology. 2008;149:2477–83.
Rossi GP, Bernini G, Desideri G, et al. Renal damage in primary aldosteronism: results of the PAPY study. Hypertension. 2006;48:232–8.
Rudnicki M, Perco P, D Haene B, et al. Renal microRNA- and RNA-profiles in progressive chronic kidney disease. Eur J Clin Invest. 2016;46:213–26.
Savoia C, Touyz RM, Amiri F, Schiffrin EL. Selective mineralocorticoid receptor blocker eplerenone reduces resistance artery stiffness in hypertensive patients. Hypertension. 2008;51:432–9.
Schinner S, Willenberg HS, Krause D, et al. Adipocyte-derived products induce the transcription of the StAR promoter and stimulate aldosterone and cortisol secretion from adrenocortical cells through the Wnt-signaling pathway. Int J Obes. 2007;31:864–70.
Scholl UI, Stolting G, Nelson-Williams C, et al. Recurrent gain of function mutation in calcium channel CACNA1H causes early-onset hypertension with primary aldosteronism. eLife. 2015;4:e06315.
Scholl UI, Stolting G, Schewe J, et al. CLCN2 chloride channel mutations in familial hyperaldosteronism type II. Nat Genet. 2018;50:349–54.
Schutten MT, Houben AJ, de Leeuw PW, Stehouwer CD. The link between adipose tissue renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system signaling and obesity-associated hypertension. Physiology. 2017;32:197–209.
Shackleton CH, Rodriguez J, Arteaga E, Lopez JM, Winter JS. Congenital 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency associated with juvenile hypertension: corticosteroid metabolite profiles of four patients and their families. Clin Endocrinol. 1985;22:701–12.
Shang Y, Yang X, Zhang R, Zou H, Zhao R. Low amino acids affect expression of 11β-HSD2 in BeWo cells through leptin-activated JAK-STAT and MAPK pathways. Amino Acids. 2012;42:1879–87.
Sheedy FJ. Turning 21: induction of miR-21 as a key switch in the inflammatory response. Front Immunol. 2015;6:19.
Shi L, Liao J, Liu B, Zeng F, Zhang L. Mechanisms and therapeutic potential of microRNAs in hypertension. Drug Discov Today. 2015;20:1188–204.
Shimkets RA, Warnock DG, Bositis CM, et al. Liddle’s syndrome: heritable human hypertension caused by mutations in the beta subunit of the epithelial sodium channel. Cell. 1994;79:407–14.
Smolarek I, Wyszko E, Barciszewska AM, et al. Global DNA methylation changes in blood of patients with essential hypertension. Med Sci Monit. 2010;16:CR149–55.
Stehr CB, Carvajal CA, Lacourt P, et al. Marcadores de inflamación endotelial subclínica en una familia con hiperaldosteronismo familiar tipo I por mutación de novo. Rev Med Chil. 2008;136:1134–40.
Stehr CB, Mellado R, Ocaranza MP, et al. Increased levels of oxidative stress, subclinical inflammation, and myocardial fibrosis markers in primary aldosteronism patients. J Hypertens. 2010;28:2120–6.
Stewart PM, Corrie JE, Shackleton CH, Edwards CR. Syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. A defect in the cortisol-cortisone shuttle. J Clin Invest. 1988;82:340–9.
Stowasser M. Update in primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100:1–10.
Stowasser M, Gordon RD, Tunny TJ, Klemm SA, Finn WL, Krek AL. Familial hyperaldosteronism type II: five families with a new variety of primary aldosteronism. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1992;19:319–22.
Stowasser M, Bachmann AW, Huggard PR, Rossetti TR, Gordon RD. Treatment of familial hyperaldosteronism type I: only partial suppression of adrenocorticotropin required to correct hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:3313–8.
St-Pierre J, Fraser M, Vaillancourt C. Inhibition of placental 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 by lead. Reprod Toxicol. 2016;65:133–8.
Sun Y, Koo S, White N, et al. Development of a micro-array to detect human and mouse microRNAs and characterization of expression in human organs. Nucleic Acids Res. 2004;32:e188.
Syed M, Ball JP, Mathis KW, et al. MicroRNA-21 ablation exacerbates aldosterone-mediated cardiac injury, remodeling, and dysfunction. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2018;315:E1154–E67.
Tapia-Castillo A, Carvajal CA, Campino C, et al. Polymorphisms in the RAC1 gene are associated with hypertension risk factors in a Chilean pediatric population. Am J Hypertens. 2014;27:299–307.
Tapia-Castillo A, Carvajal CA, Campino C, et al. The expression of RAC1 and mineralocorticoid pathway-dependent genes are associated with different responses to salt intake. Am J Hypertens. 2015;28:722–8.
Tapia-Castillo A, Carvajal CA, Allende F, Campino C, Fardella CE. Hypertensive patients that respond to aldosterone antagonists may have a nonclassical 11beta-HSD2 deficiency. Am J Hypertens. 2017;30:e6.
Tapia-Castillo A, Baudrand R, Vaidya A, et al. Clinical, biochemical, and genetic characteristics of “nonclassic” apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2019a;104:595–603.
Tapia-Castillo A, Guanzon D, Palma C, et al. Downregulation of exosomal miR-192-5p and miR-204-5p in subjects with nonclassic apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Transl Med. 2019b;17:392.
Tapia-Castillo A, Carvajal CA, Lopez-Cortes X, Vecchiola A, Fardella CE. Novel metabolomic profile of subjects with non-classic apparent mineralocorticoid excess. Sci Rep. 2021;11:17156.
Tian Z, Greene AS, Pietrusz JL, Matus IR, Liang M. MicroRNA-target pairs in the rat kidney identified by microRNA microarray, proteomic, and bioinformatic analysis. Genome Res. 2008;18:404–11.
Tsukamoto K, Jackson IJ, Urabe K, Montague PM, Hearing VJ. A second tyrosinase-related protein, TRP-2, is a melanogenic enzyme termed DOPAchrome tautomerase. EMBO J. 1992;11:519–26.
Udali S, Guarini P, Moruzzi S, Choi SW, Friso S. Cardiovascular epigenetics: from DNA methylation to microRNAs. Mol Asp Med. 2013;34:883–901.
Ueda K, Nishimoto M, Hirohama D, et al. Renal dysfunction induced by kidney-specific gene deletion of Hsd11b2 as a primary cause of salt-dependent hypertension. Hypertension. 2017;70:111–8.
Ulick S, Chan CK, Rao KN, Edassery J, Mantero F. A new form of the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Steroid Biochem. 1989;32:209–12.
Vaclavik J, Sedlak R, Plachy M, et al. Addition of spironolactone in patients with resistant arterial hypertension (ASPIRANT): a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Hypertension. 2011;57:1069–75.
Vaidya A, Mulatero P, Baudrand R, Adler GK. The expanding spectrum of primary aldosteronism: implications for diagnosis, pathogenesis, and treatment. Endocr Rev. 2018;39:1057–88.
Vitellius G, Delemer B, Caron P, et al. Impaired 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in glucocorticoid resistant patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2019;104:5205–16.
Wang FE, Zhang C, Maminishkis A, et al. MicroRNA-204/211 alters epithelial physiology. FASEB J. 2010;24:1552–71.
Wang X, Wang HX, Li YL, et al. MicroRNA Let-7i negatively regulates cardiac inflammation and fibrosis. Hypertension. 2015;66:776–85.
Watson B Jr, Bergman SM, Myracle A, Callen DF, Acton RT, Warnock DG. Genetic association of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD11B2) flanking microsatellites with essential hypertension in blacks. Hypertension. 1996;28:478–82.
Wawrzyniak R, Mpanga AY, Struck-Lewicka W, et al. Untargeted metabolomics provides insight into the mechanisms underlying resistant hypertension. Curr Med Chem. 2019;26:232–43.
White PC, Curnow KM, Pascoe L. Disorders of steroid 11beta-hydroxylase isozymes. Endocr Rev. 1994;15:421–38.
Whitworth JA. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced hypertension. Kidney Int. 1987;31:1213–24.
Williams B, MacDonald TM, Morant SV, et al. Endocrine and haemodynamic changes in resistant hypertension, and blood pressure responses to spironolactone or amiloride: the PATHWAY-2 mechanisms substudies. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6:464–75.
Wilson RC, Krozowski ZS, Li K, et al. A mutation in the HSD11B2 gene in a family with apparent mineralocorticoid excess. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1995;80:2263–6.
World Health Organization. Raised blood pressure. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011. p. 39–40.
Yau M, Haider S, Khattab A, et al. Clinical, genetic, and structural basis of apparent mineralocorticoid excess due to 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 deficiency. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2017;114:E11248–56.
Young JWF, Calhoun DA, Lenders JWM, Stowasser M, Textor SC. Screening for endocrine hypertension: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocr Rev. 2017;38:103–22.
Yu X, Odenthal M, Fries JW. Exosomes as miRNA carriers: formation-function-future. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17:2028.
Yu Z, Zhan X, Li X. MiR-204 inhibits hypertension by regulating proliferation and apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2018;11:8214–22.
Zhao H, Liu Y, Li Z, et al. Identification of essential hypertension biomarkers in human urine by non-targeted metabolomics based on UPLC-Q-TOF/MS. Clin Chim Acta. 2018;486:192–8.
Zhou C, Ye F, Wu H, Ye H, Chen Q. Recent advances in the study of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11beta-HSD2) inhibitors. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2017;52:47–53.
Zhu X, Manning RD, Lu D, et al. Aldosterone stimulates superoxide production in macula densa cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2011;301:F529–35.
Zhu L, Ni C, Dong B, et al. A novel hedgehog inhibitor iG2 suppresses tumorigenesis by impairing self-renewal in human bladder cancer. Cancer Med. 2016;5:2579–86.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported partially by grants ANID-FONDECYT 1160695 (CEF), 1212006 (CAC) and 3200646 (ATC); CONICYT-FONDEQUIP EQM150023 (CAC); SOCHED 2019-09 (CAC) and CETREN-UC.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Carvajal, C.A., Tapia-Castillo, A., Uslar, T., Fardella, C.E. (2023). Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess. In: Caprio, M., Fernandes-Rosa, F.L. (eds) Hydro Saline Metabolism. Endocrinology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27119-9_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27119-9_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-27118-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-27119-9
eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine